<p>Memphis  was the ancient capital of Aneb-Hetch, the first nome of Lower Egypt. Its ruins are located near the town of Mit Rahina, 20 km  south of Giza.</p><br>
<p>According to legend related by Manetho, the city was founded by the pharaoh Menes. Capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom, it remained an important city throughout ancient Mediterranean history. It occupied a strategic position at the mouth of the Nile delta, and was home to feverish activity. Its principal port, Peru-nefer, harboured a high density of workshops, factories, and warehouses that distributed food and merchandise throughout the ancient kingdom. During its golden age, Memphis thrived as a regional centre for commerce, trade, and religion.</p><br>
<p>Memphis was believed to be under the protection of the god Ptah, the patron of craftsmen. Its great temple, Hut-ka-Ptah (meaning "Enclosure of the ka of Ptah"), was one of the most prominent structures in the city. The name of this temple, rendered in Greek as Aί-γυ-πτoς (Ai-gy-ptos) by the historian Manetho, is believed to be the etymological origin of the modern English name Egypt.</p><br>
<p>The history of Memphis is closely linked to that of the country itself. Its eventual downfall is believed to be due to the loss of its economic significance in late antiquity, following the rise of coastal Alexandria. Its religious significance also diminished after the abandonment of the ancient religion following the Edict of Thessalonica.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of the former capital today offer fragmented evidence of its past. They have been preserved, along with the pyramid complex at Giza, as a World Heritage Site since 1979. The site is open to the public as an open-air museum.</p><br>
<h2>Toponymy</h2><br>
<p>Memphis has had several names during its history of almost four millennia. Its Ancient Egyptian name was Inbu-Hedj (translated as "the white walls").</p><br>
<p>Because of its size, the city also came to be known by various other names that were actually the names of neighbourhoods or districts that enjoyed considerable prominence at one time or another. For example, according to a text of the First Intermediate Period, it was known as Djed-Sut ("everlasting places"), which is the name of the pyramid of Teti.</p><br>
<p>The city was also at one point referred to as Ankh-Tawy (meaning "Life of the Two Lands"), stressing the strategic position of the city between Upper and Lower Egypt. This name appears to date from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1640 BCE), and is frequently found in ancient Egyptian texts. Some scholars maintain that this name was actually that of the western district of the city that lay between the great Temple of Ptah and the necropolis at Saqqara, an area that contained a sacred tree.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BCE), the city became known as Men-nefer (meaning "enduring and beautiful"), which became Menfe in Coptic. The name "Memphis" (Μέμφις) is the Greek adaptation of this name, which was originally the name of the pyramid of Pepi I, located west of the city. However, Greek poet Hesiod at his Theogony refers that Memphis was a daughter of river god Nilus and the wife of Epaphus (the son of Zeus and Io), who founded the city and named it after his wife&#39;s name.</p><br>
<p>In the Bible, Memphis is called Moph or Noph.</p><br>
<h2>Attributes</h2><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>The city of Memphis is 20 km south of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile. The modern cities and towns of Mit Rahina, Dahshur, Abusir, Abu Gorab, and Zawyet el&#39;Aryan, south of Cairo, all lie within the administrative borders of historical Memphis (29&deg;50&prime;58.8&Prime;N latitude, 31&deg;15&prime;15.4&Prime;E longitude). The city was also the place that marked the boundary between Upper and Lower Egypt. (The 22nd nome of Upper Egypt and 1st nome of Lower Egypt).</p><br>
<h3>Population</h3><br>
<p>The island of the city is today uninhabited. The closest settlement is the town of Mit Rahina. Estimates of historical population size differ widely between sources. According to Tertius Chandler, Memphis had some 30,000 inhabitants and was by far the largest settlement worldwide from the time of its foundation until around 2250 BCE and from 1557 to 1400 BCE. K. A. Bard is more cautious and estimates the city&#39;s population to have amounted to about 6,000 inhabitants during the Old Kingdom.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Memphis became the capital of Ancient Egypt for over eight consecutive dynasties during the Old Kingdom. The city reached a peak of prestige under the 6th dynasty as a centre for the worship of Ptah, the god of creation and artworks. The alabaster sphinx that guards the Temple of Ptah serves as a memorial of the city&#39;s former power and prestige. The Memphis triad, consisting of the creator god Ptah, his consort Sekhmet, and their son Nefertem, formed the main focus of worship in the city.</p><br>
<p>Memphis declined briefly after the 18th dynasty with the rise of Thebes and the New Kingdom, and was revived under the Persians before falling firmly into second place following the foundation of Alexandria. Under the Roman Empire, Alexandria remained the most important Egyptian city. Memphis remained the second city of Egypt until the establishment of Fustat (or Fostat) in 641 CE. It was then largely abandoned and became a source of stone for the surrounding settlements. It was still an imposing set of ruins in the 12th century but soon became a little more than an expanse of low ruins and scattered stone.</p><br>
<h3>Legendary history</h3><br>
<p>The legend recorded by Manetho was that Menes, the first pharaoh to unite the Two Lands, established his capital on the banks of the Nile by diverting the river with dikes. The Greek historian Herodotus, who tells a similar story, relates that during his visit to the city, the Persians, at that point the suzerains of the country, paid particular attention to the condition of these dams so that the city was saved from the annual flooding.</p><br>
<p>It has been theorised that Menes was possibly a mythical king, similar to Romulus of Rome. Some scholars suggest that Egypt most likely became unified through mutual need, developing cultural ties and trading partnerships, although it is undisputed that the first capital of united Egypt was the city of Memphis. Egyptologists have also identified the legendary Menes with the historical Narmer, who is represented in the Palette of Narmer conquering the Nile delta in Lower Egypt and establishing himself as pharaoh. This palette has been dated to ca. 31st century BC, and would thus correlate with the story of Egypt&#39;s unification by Menes. However, in 2012 an inscription depicting the visit of the predynastic king Iry-Hor to Memphis was discovered in the Sinai. Since Iry-Hor predates Narmer by two generations, the latter cannot have been the founder of the city.</p><br>
<h3>Old Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>Little is known about the city of the Old Kingdom. It was the state capital of the godlike pharaohs, who reigned from Memphis from the date of the 1st dynasty. During the earliest years of the reign of Menes, according to Manetho, the seat of power was further to the south, at Thinis.</p><br>
<p>According to Manetho, ancient sources suggest the "white walls" (Ineb-hedj) were founded by Menes. Referred to in some texts as the "Fortress of the White Wall", it is likely that the king established himself here to better control this new union between the two rival kingdoms. The complex of Djoser of the 3rd dynasty, located in the ancient necropolis at Saqqara, would then be the royal funerary chamber, housing all the elements necessary to royalty: temples, shrines, ceremonial courts, palaces and barracks.</p><br>
<p>The golden age began with the 4th dynasty, which seems to have furthered the primary role of Memphis as a royal residence where rulers received the double crown, the divine manifestation of the unification of the Two Lands. Coronations and jubilees such as the Sed festival were celebrated in the temple of Ptah. The earliest signs of such ceremonies were found in the chambers of Djoser.</p><br>
<p>It was also during this period that developed the clergy of the temple of Ptah. The importance of the shrine is attested in this period with payments of food and other goods necessary for the funerary rites of royal and noble dignitaries. This shrine is also cited in the annals preserved on the Palermo Stone, and beginning from the reign of Menkaura, we know the names of the high priests of Memphis that seem to work in pairs at least until the reign of Teti.</p><br>
<p>The architecture of this period was similar to that seen at Giza, royal necropolis of the Fourth dynasty, where recent excavations have revealed that the essential focus of the kingdom at that time centred on the construction of the royal tomb. A strong suggestion of this notion is the etymology of the name of the city itself, which matched that of the pyramid of Pepi I of the 6th dynasty. Memphis was then the heir to a long artistic and architectural practice, constantly encouraged by the monuments of preceding reigns.</p><br>
<p>All these necropoleis were surrounded by camps inhabited by craftsmen and labourers, dedicated exclusively to the construction of royal tombs. Spread over several kilometres stretching in all directions, Memphis formed a true megalopolis, with temples connected by sacred temenos, and ports connected by roadways and canals. The perimeter of the city thus gradually extended into a vast urban sprawl. Its centre remained around the temple complex of Ptah.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>In the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, the capital and court of the pharaoh had moved to Thebes in the south, leaving Memphis for a time in the shade. Although the seat of political power had been shifted, however, Memphis remained perhaps the most important commercial and artistic centre, as evidenced by the discovery of handicrafts districts and cemeteries, located west of the temple of Ptah.</p><br>
<p>Also found were vestiges attesting to the architectural focus of this time. A large granite offering table on behalf of Amenemhat I mentioned the erection by the king of a shrine to the god Ptah, master of Truth. Other blocks registered in the name of Amenemhat II were found to be used as foundations for large monoliths preceding the pylons of Rameses II. These kings were also known to have ordered mining expeditions, raids or military campaigns beyond the borders, erecting monuments or statues to the consecration of deities, evinced by a panel recording official acts of the royal court during this time. In the ruins of the Temple of Ptah, a block in the name of Senusret II bears an inscription indicating an architectural commission as a gift to the gods of Memphis. Moreover, many statues found at the site, later restored by the New Kingdom pharaohs, are attributed to pharaohs of the 12th dynasty. Examples include the two stone giants that have been recovered amidst the temple ruins, which were later restored under the name of Rameses II.</p><br>
<p>Finally, according to the tradition recorded by Herodotus and Diodorus, Amenemhet III built the northern gate of the Temple of Ptah. Remains attributed to this pharaoh were indeed found during the excavations in this area conducted by Flinders Petrie, who confirmed the connection. It is also worth noting that, during this time, mastabas of the high priests of Ptah were constructed near the royal pyramids at Saqqara, showing that the royalty and the clergy of Memphis at that time were closely linked. The 13th dynasty continued this trend, and some pharaohs of this line were buried at Saqqara, attesting that Memphis retained its place at the heart of the monarchy.</p><br>
<p>With the invasion of the Hyksos, and their rise to power ca. 1650 BC, the city of Memphis came under siege. Following its capture, many monuments and statues of the ancient capital and were dismantled, looted or damaged by the Hyksos kings, who later carried them to adorn their new capital at Avaris. Evidence of royal propaganda has been uncovered and attributed to the Theban kings of the 17th dynasty, who initiated the reconquest of the kingdom half a century later.</p><br>
<h3>New Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>The 18th dynasty thus opened with the victory over the invaders by the Thebans. Although the reigns of Amenhotep II (r. 1427–1401/1397 BC) and Thutmose IV (r. 1401/1397–1391/1388 BC) saw considerable royal focus in Memphis, power remained for the most part in the south. With the long period of peace that followed, prosperity again took hold of the city, which benefited from her strategic position. Strengthening trade ties with other empires meant that the port of Peru-nefer (literally means "Bon Voyage") became the gateway to the kingdom for neighbouring regions, including Byblos and the Levant.</p><br>
<p>In the New Kingdom, Memphis became a centre for the education of royal princes and the sons of the nobility. Amenhotep II, born and raised in Memphis, was made the setem—the high priest over Lower Egypt—during the reign of his father. His son, Thutmose IV received his famed and recorded dream whilst residing as a young prince in Memphis. During his exploration of the site, Karl Richard Lepsius identified a series of blocks and broken colonnades in the name of Thutmose IV to the east of the Temple of Ptah. They had to belong to a royal building, most likely a ceremonial palace.</p><br>
<p>The founding of the temple of Astarte (Mespotamian/Assyrian goddess of fertility and war; Babylonian=Ishtar), which Herodotus mistakes as being dedicated to the Greek goddess Aphrodite, may also be dated to the 18th dynasty, specifically the reign of Amenhotep III (r. 1388/86–1351/1349 BC). The greatest work of this pharaoh in Memphis, however, was a temple called "Nebmaatra united with Ptah", which is cited by many sources from the period of his reign, including artefacts listing the works of Huy, the High Steward of Memphis. The location of this temple has not been precisely determined, but a number of its brown quartzite blocks were found to have been reused by Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BC) for the construction of the small temple of Ptah. This leads some Egyptologists to suggest that the latter temple had been built over the site of the first.</p><br>
<p>According to inscriptions found in Memphis, Akhenaten (r. 1353/51–1336/34 BC; formerly Amenhotep IV) founded a temple of Aten in the city. The burial chamber of one of the priests of this cult has been uncovered at Saqqara. His successor Tutankhamun (r. 1332–1323 BC; formerly Tutankhaten) relocated the royal court from Akhenaten&#39;s capital Akhetaten ("Horizon of the Aten") to Memphis before the end of the second year of his reign. Whilst in Memphis, Tutankhamun initiated a period of restoration of the temples and traditions following the monotheistic era of Atenism, which was regarded as heresy.</p><br>
<p>The tombs of important officials from his reign, such as Horemheb and Maya, are situated in Saqqara, although Horemheb was eventually buried in the Valley of the Kings after reigning as pharaoh himself (r. 1319–1292 BC). He had been Commander of the Army under Tutankhamun and Ay. Maya was Overseer of the Treasury during the reigns of Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb. Ay had been Tutankhamuns chief minister, and succeeded him as pharaoh (r. 1323–1319 BC). To consolidate his power he married Tutankhamuns widow Ankhesenamun, the third of the six daughters of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Her fate is unknown. Horemheb did likewise when he married Nefertiti&#39;s sister Mutnodjemet.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence that, under Ramesses II, the city developed new importance in the political sphere through its proximity to the new capital Pi-Ramesses. The pharaoh devoted many monuments in Memphis and adorned them with colossal symbols of glory. Merneptah (r. 1213–1203 BC), his successor, constructed a palace and developed the southeast wall of the temple of Ptah. For the early part of the 19th dynasty, Memphis received the privileges of royal attention, and it is this dynasty that is most evident among the ruins of the city today.</p><br>
<p>With the 21st and 22nd dynasties, we see a continuation of the religious development initiated by Ramesses. Memphis does not seem to suffer a decline during the Third Intermediate Period, which saw great changes in the geopolitics of the country. Instead it is likely that the pharaohs worked to develop the Memphite cult in their new capital of Tanis, to the northeast. In light of some remains found at the site, it is known that a temple of Ptah was based there. Siamun is cited as having built a temple dedicated to Amun, the remains of which were found by Flinders Petrie in the early 20th century, in the south of the temple of Ptah complex.</p><br>
<p>According to inscriptions describing his architectural work, Sheshonk I (r. 943–922 BC), founder of the 22nd dynasty, constructed a forecourt and pylon of the temple of Ptah, a monument which he called the "Castle of Millions of Years of Sheshonk, Beloved of Amun". The funerary cult surrounding this monument, well known in the New Kingdom, was still functioning several generations after its establishment at the temple, leading some scholars to suggest that it may have contained the royal burial chamber of the pharaoh himself. Sheshonk also ordered the building of a new shrine for the god Apis, especially devoted to funeral ceremonies in which the bull was led to his death to be ritually mummified.</p><br>
<p>A necropolis for the high priests of Memphis dating precisely from the 22nd dynasty has been found west of the forum. It included a chapel dedicated to Ptah by a prince Shoshenq, son of Osorkon II (r. 872–837 BC), whose tomb was found in Saqqara in 1939 by Pierre Montet. The chapel is currently visible in the gardens of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, behind a trio of colossi of Ramesses II, which are also from Memphis.</p><br>
<h3>Late Period</h3><br>
<p>During the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period, Memphis is often the scene of liberation struggles of the local dynasties against an occupying force, such as the Kushites, Assyrians and Persians.</p><br>
<p>The triumphant campaign of Piankhi, ruler of the Kushites, saw the establishment of the 25th dynasty, whose seat of power was in Napata. Piankhi&#39;s conquest of Egypt was recorded on the Victory Stele at the Temple of Amun in Gebel Barkal. Following the capture of Memphis, he restored the temples and cults neglected during the reign of the Libyans. His successors are known for building for chapels in the southwest corner of the temple of Ptah.</p><br>
<p>Memphis was at the heart of the turmoil produced by the great Assyrian threat. Under Taharqa, the city formed the frontier base of the resistance, which soon crumbled as the Kushite king was driven back into Nubia. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon, supported by some of the native Egyptian princes, captured Memphis in 671 BCE. His forces sacked and raided the city, slaughtered villagers and erected piles of their heads. Esarhaddon returned to his capital Nineveh with rich booty, and erected a victory stele showing the son of Taharqa in chains. Almost as soon as the king left, Egypt rebelled against Assyrian rule.</p><br>
<p>In Assyria, Ashurbanipal succeeded his father and resumed the offensive against Egypt. In a massive invasion in 664 BCE, the city of Memphis was again sacked and looted, and the king Tantamani was pursued into Nubia and defeated, putting a definitive end to the Kushite reign over Egypt. Power then returned to the Saite pharaohs, who, fearful of an invasion from the Babylonians, reconstructed and even fortified structures in the city, as is attested by the palace built by Apries.</p><br>
<p>Egypt and Memphis were taken for Persia by king Cambysis in 525 BC after the Battle of Pelusium. Under the Persians, structures in the city were preserved and strengthened, and Memphis was made the administrative headquarters of the newly conquered satrapy. A Persian garrison was permanently installed within the city, probably in the great north wall, near the domineering palace of Apries. The excavations by Flinders Petrie revealed that this sector included armouries. For almost a century and a half, the city remained the capital of the Persian satrapy of Egypt ("Mudraya"/"Musraya"), officially becoming one of the epicentres of commerce in the vast territory conquered by the Achaemenid monarchy.</p><br>
<p>The steles dedicated to Apis in the Serapeum at Saqqara, commissioned by the reigning monarch, represent a key element in understanding the events of this period. As in the Late Period, the catacombs in which the remains of the sacred bulls were buried gradually grew in size, and later took on a monumental appearance that confirms the growth of the cult&#39;s hypostases throughout the country, and particularly in Memphis and its necropolis. Thus, a monument dedicated by Cambyses II seems to refute the testimony of Herodotus, who lends the conquerors a criminal attitude of disrespect against the sacred traditions.</p><br>
<p>The nationalist awakening came with the rise to power, however briefly, of Amyrtaeus in 404 BCE, who ended the Persian occupation. He was defeated and executed at Memphis in October 399 BCE by Nepherites I, founder of the 29th dynasty. The execution was recorded in an Aramaic papyrus document (Papyrus Brooklyn 13). Nepherites moved the capital to Mendes, in the eastern delta, and Memphis lost its status in the political sphere. It retained, however, its religious, commercial, and strategic importance, and was instrumental in resisting Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt.</p><br>
<p>Under Nectanebo I, a major rebuilding program was initiated for temples across the country. In Memphis, a powerful new wall was rebuilt for the Temple of Ptah, and developments were made to temples and chapels inside the complex. Nectanebo II meanwhile, while continuing the work of his predecessor, began building large sanctuaries, especially in the necropolis of Saqqara, adorning them with pylons, statues and paved roads lined with rows of sphinxes. Despite his efforts to prevent the recovery of the country by the Persians, he succumbed to a massive invasion in 343 BCE, and was defeated at Pelusium. Nectanebo II retreated south to Memphis, to which the emperor Artaxerxes III laid siege, forcing the pharaoh to flee to Upper Egypt, and eventually to Nubia.</p><br>
<p>A brief liberation of the city under the rebel-king Khababash (338 to 335 BCE) is evinced by an Apis bull sarcophagus bearing his name, which was discovered at Saqqara dating from his second year. The armies of Darius III eventually regained control of the city.</p><br>
<p>Memphis under the Late Period saw recurring invasions followed by successive liberations. Several times besieged, it was the scene of several of the bloodiest battles in the history of the country. Despite the support of their Greek allies in undermining the hegemony of the Achaemenids, the country nevertheless fell into the hands of the conquerors, and Memphis was never again to become the nations capital. In 332 BCE came the Greeks, who took control of the country from the Persians, and Egypt would never see a new native ruler ascend the pharaohs throne until the Egyptian Revolution of 1952.</p><br>
<h3>Ptolemaic Period</h3><br>
<p>In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great was crowned pharaoh in the Temple of Ptah, ushering in the Hellenistic period. The city retained a significant status, especially religious, throughout the period following the takeover by one of his generals, Ptolemy. On the death of Alexander in Babylon (323 BCE), Ptolemy took great pains in acquiring his body and bringing it to Memphis. Claiming that the king himself had officially expressed a desire to be buried in Egypt, he then carried the body of Alexander to the heart of the temple of Ptah, and had him embalmed by the priests. By custom, kings in Macedon asserted their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. Ptolemy II later transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where a royal tomb was constructed for its burial. The exact location of the tomb has been lost since then. According to Aelian, the seer Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".</p><br>
<p>Thus began the Ptolemaic dynasty, during which began the citys gradual decline. It was Ptolemy I who first introduced the cult of Serapis in Egypt, establishing his cult in Saqqara. From this period date many developments of the Saqqara Serapeum, including the building of the Chamber of Poets, as well as the dromos adorning the temple, and many elements of Greek-inspired architecture. The cults reputation extended beyond the borders of the country, but was later eclipsed by the great Alexandrian Serapeum, built in Ptolemy&#39;s honour by his successors.</p><br>
<p>The Decrees of Memphis were issued in 216 and 196 BCE, by Ptolemy IV and Ptolemy V respectively. Delegates from the principal clergies of the kingdom gathered in synod, under the patronage of the High Priest of Ptah and in the presence of the pharaoh, to establish the religious policy of the country for years to come, also dictating fees and taxes, creating new foundations, and paying tribute to the Ptolemaic rulers. These decrees were engraved on stelae in three scripts to be read and understood by all: Demotic, hieroglyphic, and Greek. The most famous of these stelae is the Rosetta Stone, which allowed the deciphering of ancient Egyptian script in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>There were other stelae, funerary this time, discovered on the site that have forwarded knowledge of the genealogy of the higher clergy of Memphis, a dynasty of high priests of Ptah. The lineage retained strong ties with the royal family in Alexandria, to the extent that marriages occurred between certain high priests and Ptolemaic princesses, strengthening even further the commitment between the two families.</p><br>
<h3>Decline and abandonment</h3><br>
<p>With the arrival of the Romans, Memphis, like Thebes, lost its place permanently in favour of Alexandria, which opened onto the empire. The rise of the cult of Serapis, a syncretic deity most suited to the mentality of the new rulers of Egypt, and the emergence of Christianity taking root deep into the country, spelled the complete ruin of the ancient cults of Memphis.</p><br>
<p>Gradually, the city dropped out of existence during the Byzantine and Coptic periods. The city then became a quarry to build new settlements nearby, including a new capital founded by the Arabs who took possession in the 7th century. The foundations of Fustat and later Cairo, both built further north, were laid with stones of dismantled temples and ancient necropoleis of Memphis. In the 13th century, the Arab chronicler Abd-ul-Latif, upon visiting the site, describes and gives testimony to the grandeur of the ruins.</p><br>
<p>"Enormous as are the extent and antiquity of this city, in spite of the frequent change of governments whose yoke it has borne, and the great pains more than one nation has been at to destroy it, to sweep its last trace from the face of the earth, to carry away the stones and materials of which it was constructed, to mutilate the statues which adorned it; in spite, finally, of all that more than four thousand years have done in addition to man, these ruins still offer to the eye of the beholder a mass of marvels which bewilder the senses and which the most skillful pens must fail to describe. The more deeply we contemplate this city the more our admiration rises, and every fresh glance at the ruins is a fresh source of delight... The ruins of Memphis hold a half-day&#39;s journey in every direction."</p><br>
<p>Although the remains today are nothing compared to what was witnessed by the Arab historian, his testimony has inspired the work of many archaeologists. The first surveys and excavations of the 19th century, and the extensive work of Flinders Petrie, have been able to show a little of the ancient capital&#39;s former glory. Memphis and its necropolis, which include funerary rock tombs, mastabas, temples and pyramids, were inscribed on the World Heritage List of UNESCO in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>Remains</h2><br>
<p>During the time of the New Kingdom, and especially under the reign of the rulers of the 19th dynasty, Memphis flourished in power and size, rivalling Thebes both politically and architecturally. An indicator of this development can be found in a chapel of Seti I dedicated to the worship of Ptah. After over a century of excavations on the site, archaeologists have gradually been able to confirm the layout and expansion of the ancient city.</p><br>
<h3>Great Temple of Ptah</h3><br>
<p>The Hout-ka-Ptah, dedicated to the worship of the creator god Ptah, was the largest and most important temple in ancient Memphis. It was one of the most prominent structures in the city, occupying a large precinct within the city&#39;s centre. Enriched by centuries of veneration, the temple was one of the three foremost places of worship in Ancient Egypt, the others being the great temples of Ra in Heliopolis, and of Amun in Thebes.</p><br>
<p>Much of what is known about the ancient temple today comes from the writings of Herodotus, who visited the site at the time of the first Persian invasion, long after the fall of the New Kingdom. Herodotus claimed that the temple had been founded by Menes himself, and that the core building of the complex was restricted to priests and kings. His account, however, gives no physical description of the complex. Archaeological work undertaken in the last century has gradually unearthed the temple&#39;s ruins, revealing a huge walled compound accessible by several monumental gates located along the southern, western and eastern walls.</p><br>
<p>The remains of the great temple and its premises are displayed as an open-air museum near the great colossus of Rameses II, which originally marked the southern axis of the temple. Also in this sector is a large sphinx monolith, discovered in the 19th century. It dates from the 18th dynasty, most likely having been carved during the reign of either Amenhotep II or Thutmose IV. It is one of the finest examples of this kind statuary still present on its original site.</p><br>
<p>The outdoor museum houses numerous other statues, colossi, sphinxes, and architectural elements. However, the majority of the finds have been sold to major museums around the world. For the most part, these can be found on display in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.</p><br>
<p>The specific appearance of the temple is unclear at present, and only that of the main access to the perimeter are known. Recent developments include the discovery of giant statues which adorned the gates or towers. Those that have been found date from the reign of Ramsses II. This pharaoh also built at least three shrines within the temple compound, where worship is associated with those deities to whom they were dedicated.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Ptah of Rameses II</h3><br>
<p>This small temple, adjoining the southwest corner of the larger Temple of Ptah, was dedicated to the deified Rameses II, along with the three state gods: Horus, Ptah and Amun. It is known in full as the Temple of Ptah of Rameses, Beloved of Amun, God, Ruler of Heliopolis.</p><br>
<p>Its ruins were discovered in 1942, by archaeologist Ahmed Badawy, and were excavated in 1955 by Rudolf Anthes. The excavations uncovered a religious building complete with a tower, a courtyard for ritual offerings, a portico with columns followed by a pillared hall and a tripartite sanctuary, all enclosed in walls built of mud bricks. Its most recent exterior has been dated from the New Kingdom era.</p><br>
<p>The temple opened to the east towards a path paved with other religious buildings. The archaeological explorations that took place here reveal that the southern part of the city indeed contain a large number of religious buildings with a particular devotion to the god Ptah, the principal god of Memphis.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Ptah and Sekhmet of Rameses II</h3><br>
<p>Located further east, and near to the great colossus of Rameses, this small temple is attributed to the 19th dynasty, and seems to have been dedicated to Ptah and his divine consort Sekhmet, as well as deified Rameses II. Its ruins are not as well preserved as others nearby, as its limestone foundations appear to have been quarried after the abandonment of the city in late antiquity.</p><br>
<p>Two giant statues, dating from the Middle Kingdom, originally adorned the building&#39;s facade, which opened to the west. They were moved inside the Museum of Memphis, and depicted the pharaoh standing in the attitude of the march, wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt, Hedjet.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Ptah of Merneptah</h3><br>
<p>In the southeast of the Great Temple complex, the pharaoh Merneptah, of the 19th dynasty, founded a new shrine in honour of the chief god of the city, Ptah. This temple was discovered in the early 20th century by Flinders Petrie, who identified a depiction of the Greek god Proteus cited by Herodotus.</p><br>
<p>The site was excavated during the First World War by Clarence Stanley Fisher. Excavations began in the anterior part, which is formed by a large courtyard of about 15 sq metres, opening on the south by a large door with reliefs supplying the names of the pharaoh and the epithets of Ptah. Only this part of the temple has been unearthed; the remainder of the chamber has yet to be explored a little further north. During the excavations, archaeologists unearthed the first traces of an edifice built of mud brick, which quickly proved to be a large ceremonial palace built alongside the temple proper. Some of the key elements of the stone temple were donated by Egypt to the museum at the University of Pennsylvania, which financed the expedition, while the other remained at the Museum in Cairo.</p><br>
<p>The temple remained in use throughout the rest of the New Kingdom, as evidenced by enrolment surges during the reigns of later pharaohs. Thereafter, however, it was gradually abandoned and converted for other uses by civilians. Gradually buried by the activity of the city, the stratigraphic study of the site shows that by the Late Period it was already in ruins and is soon covered by new buildings.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Hathor</h3><br>
<p>This small temple of Hathor was unearthed south of the great wall of the Hout-Ka-Ptah by Abdullah al-Sayed Mahmud in the 1970s and also dates from the time of Rameses II. Dedicated to the goddess Hathor, Lady of the Sycamore, it presents an architecture similar to the small temple-shrines known especially to Karnak. From its proportions, it does not seem to be a major shrine of the goddess, but is currently the only building dedicated to her discovered in the city&#39;s ruins.</p><br>
<p>It is believed that this shrine was primarily used for processional purposes during major religious festivals. A larger temple dedicated to Hathor, indeed one of the foremost shrines of the goddess in the country, is thought to have existed elsewhere in the city, but to date has not been discovered. A depression, similar to that found near the great temple of Ptah, could indicate its location. Archaeologists believe that it could house the remains of an enclosure and a large monument, a theory attested by ancient sources.</p><br>
<h3>Other temples</h3><br>
<p>A temple dedicated to Mithras, dated from the Roman period, has been uncovered in the grounds north of Memphis. The temple of Astarte, described by Herodotus, was located in the area reserved to the Phoenicians during the time when the Greek author visited the city. The temple of the goddess Neith was said to have been located to the north of the temple of Ptah. Neither of the latter two has been discovered to date.</p><br>
<p>Memphis is believed to have housed a number of other temples dedicated to gods who accompanied Ptah. Some of these sanctuaries are attested by ancient hieroglyphs, but have not yet been found among the ruins of the city. Surveys and excavations are still continuing at nearby Mit Rahina, and will likely add to the knowledge of the planning of the ancient religious city.</p><br>
<h4>Temple of Sekhmet</h4><br>
<p>A temple dedicated to the goddess Sekhmet, consort of Ptah, has not yet been found but is currently certified by Egyptian sources. Archaeologists are still searching for remains.</p><br>
<p>It may be located within the precinct of the Hout-ka-Ptah, as would seem to suggest several discoveries made among the ruins of the complex in the late 19th century, including a block of stone evoking the "great door" with the epithet of the goddess, and a column bearing an inscription on behalf of Rameses II declaring him "beloved of Sekhmet". It has also been demonstrated through the Great Harris Papyrus, which states that a statue of the goddess was made alongside those of Ptah and their son, the god Nefertem, during the reign of Rameses III, and that it was commissioned for the gods of Memphis at the heart of the great temple.</p><br>
<h4>Temple of Apis</h4><br>
<p>The Temple of Apis in Memphis was the main temple dedicated to the worship of the bull Apis, considered to be a living manifestation of Ptah. It is detailed in the works of classical historians such as Herodotus, Diodorus, and Strabo, but its location has yet to be discovered amidst the ruins of the ancient capital.</p><br>
<p>According to Herodotus, who described the temple&#39;s courtyard as a peristyle of columns with giant statues, it was built during the reign of Psammetichus I.</p><br>
<p>The Greek historian Strabo visited the site with the conquering Roman troops, following the victory against Cleopatra at Actium. He details that the temple consisted of two chambers, one for the bull and the other for his mother, and all was built near the temple of Ptah. At the temple, Apis was used as an oracle, his movements being interpreted as prophecies. His breath was believed to cure disease, and his presence to bless those around with virility. He was given a window in the temple through which he could be seen, and on certain holidays was led through the streets of the city, bedecked with jewellery and flowers.</p><br>
<p>In 1941, the archaeologist Ahmed Badawy discovered the first remains in Memphis which depicted the god Apis. The site, located within the grounds of the great temple of Ptah, was revealed to be a mortuary chamber designed exclusively for the embalming of the sacred bull. A stele found at Saqqara shows that Nectanebo II had ordered the restoration of this building, and elements dated from the 30th dynasty have been unearthed in the northern part of the chamber, confirming the time of reconstruction in this part of the temple. It is likely that the mortuary was part of the larger temple of Apis cited by ancient sources. This sacred part of the temple would be the only part that has survived, and would confirm the words of Strabo and Diodorus, both of whom stated that the temple was located near the temple of Ptah.</p><br>
<p>The majority of known Apis statues come from the burial chambers known as Serapeum, located to the northwest at Saqqara. The most ancient burials found at this site date back to the reign of Amenhotep III.</p><br>
<h4>Temple of Amun</h4><br>
<p>During the 21st dynasty, a shrine of the great god Amun was built by Siamun to the south of the temple of Ptah. This temple (or temples) was most likely dedicated to the Theban Triad, consisting of Amun, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu. It was the Upper Egyptian counterpart of the Memphis Triad (Ptah, Sekhmet, and Nefertem).</p><br>
<h4>Temple of Aten</h4><br>
<p>A temple dedicated to Aten in Memphis is attested by hieroglyphs found within the tombs of Memphite dignitaries of the end of the 18th dynasty, uncovered at Saqqara. Among them, that of Tutankhamun, who began his career under the reign of Akhenaten as a "steward of the temple of Aten in Memphis".</p><br>
<p>Since the early excavations at Memphis in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, artefacts have been uncovered in different parts of the city that indicate the presence of a building dedicated to the worship of the sun disc. The location of such a building is lost, and various hypotheses have been made on this subject based on the place of discovery of the remains of the Amarna period features.</p><br>
<h3>Statues of Rameses II</h3><br>
<p>The ruins of ancient Memphis have yielded a large number of sculptures representing Pharaoh Rameses II.</p><br>
<p>Within the museum in Memphis is a giant statue of the pharaoh carved of monumental limestone, about 10 metres in length. It was discovered in 1820 near the southern gate of the temple of Ptah by Italian archaeologist Giovanni Caviglia. Because the base and feet of the sculpture are broken off from the rest of the body, it is currently displayed lying on its back. Some of the colours are still partially preserved, but the beauty of this statue lies in its flawless detail of the complex and subtle forms of human anatomy. The pharaoh wears the white crown of Upper Egypt, Hedjet.</p><br>
<p>Caviglia offered to send the statue to Grand Duke of Tuscany, Leopold II, through the mediation of Ippolito Rosellini. Rosellini advised the sovereign of the terrible expenses involved with transportation, and considered as necessary the cutting of the colossus into pieces. The Wāli and self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, Muhammad Ali Pasha, offered to donate it to the British Museum, but the museum declined the offer because of the difficult task of shipping the huge statue to London. It therefore remained in the archaeological area of Memphis in the museum built to protect it.</p><br>
<p>The colossus was one of a pair that historically adorned the eastern entrance to the temple of Ptah. The other, found in the same year also by Caviglia, was restored in the 1950s to its full standing height of 11 metres. It was first displayed in the Bab Al-Hadid square in Cairo, which was subsequently renamed Ramses Square. Deemed an unsuitable location, it was moved in 2006 to a temporary location in Giza, where it is currently undergoing restoration. It is due to be exhibited at the entrance of the Grand Egyptian Museum, scheduled to open in 2018. A replica of the statues stands in Cairo&#39;s suburb of Heliopolis.</p><br>
<h3>Saqqara, the Necropolis</h3><br>
<p>Because of its antiquity and its large population, Memphis had several necropoleis spread along the valley, including the most famous, Saqqara. In addition, the urban area itself consisted of cemeteries that were constructed to the west of the great temple. The sanctity of these places inevitably attracted the devout and the faithful, who sought either to make an offering to Osiris, or to bury another.</p><br>
<p>The part of town called Ankh-tawy was already included in the Middle Kingdom necropolis. Expansions of the western sector of the temple of Ptah were ordered by the pharaohs of the 22nd dynasty, seeking to revive the past glory of the Ramesside age. Within this part of the site was founded a necropolis of the high priests.</p><br>
<p>According to sources, the site also included a chapel or an oratory to the goddess Bastet, which seems consistent with the presence of monuments of rulers of the dynasty following the cult of Bubastis. Also in this area were the mortuary temples devoted by various New Kingdom pharaohs, whose function is parallelled by Egyptologists to that played by the Temples of a Million years of the Theban pharaohs.</p><br>
<h3>Royal palaces</h3><br>
<p>Memphis was the seat of power for the pharaohs of over eight dynasties. According to Manetho, the first royal palace was founded by Hor-Aha, the successor of Narmer, the founder of the 1st dynasty. He built a fortress in Memphis of white walls. Egyptian sources themselves tell of the palaces of the Old Kingdom rulers, some of which were built underneath major royal pyramids. They were immense in size, and were embellished with parks and lakes. In addition to the palaces described below, other sources indicate the existence of a palace founded in the city by Thutmose I, which was still operating under the reign of Tuthmosis IV.</p><br>
<p>Merneptah, according to official texts of his reign, ordered the building of a large walled enclosure housing a new temple and adjoining palace. The later pharaoh, Apries, had a palatial complex constructed on a promontory overlooking the city. It was part of a series of structures built within the temple precinct in the Late Period, and contained a royal palace, a fortress, barracks and armouries. Flinders Petrie excavated the area and found considerable signs of military activity.</p><br>
<h3>Other buildings</h3><br>
<p>The centrally located palaces and temples were surrounded by different districts of the city, in which were many craftsmen&#39;s workshops, arsenals, and dockyards. Also were residential neighbourhoods, some of which were inhabited primarily by foreigners—first Hittites and Phoenicians, later Persians, and finally Greek. The city was indeed located at the crossroads of trade routes and thus attracted goods imported from diverse regions of the Mediterranean.</p><br>
<p>Ancient texts confirm that citywide development took place regularly. Furthermore, there is evidence that the Nile has shifted over the centuries to the east, leaving new lands to occupy in the eastern part of the old capital. This area of the city was dominated by the large eastern gate of the temple of Ptah.</p><br>
<h2>Historical accounts and exploration</h2><br>
<p>The site of Memphis has been famous since ancient times, and is cited in many ancient sources, including both Egyptian and foreign. Diplomatic records found on different sites have detailed the correspondence between the city and the various contemporary empires in the Mediterranean, Near East, and Africa. These include for example the Amarna letters, which detail trade conducted between Memphis and the sovereigns of Babylon and the various city-states of Lebanon. The proclamations of the later Assyrian kings cite Memphis among its list of conquests.</p><br>
<h3>Sources from antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Beginning with the second half of the 1st millennium BCE, the city was detailed more and more intensely in the words of ancient historians, especially with the development of trade ties with Greece. The descriptions of the city by travellers who followed the traders in the discovery of Egypt have proved instrumental in reconstructing an image of the ancient capital&#39;s glorious past. Among the main classical authors are:</p><br>
<p>Herodotus, Greek historian, who visited and described the monuments of the city during the first Persian Achaemenid rule in the 5th century BCE.</p><br>
<p>Diodorus Siculus, Greek historian, who visited the site in the 1st century BCE, providing later information about the city during the reign of the Ptolemies.</p><br>
<p>Strabo, the Hellenistic geographer, who visited during the Roman conquest in the late 1st century BCE.</p><br>
<p>Subsequently, the city is often cited by other Latin or Greek authors, in rare cases providing an overall description of the city or detailing its cults, as do Suetonius and Ammianus Marcellinus, who pay particular attention to the citys worship of Apis. The city was plunged into oblivion during the Christian period that followed, and few sources are available to attest to the citys activities during its final stages.</p><br>
<p>It was not until the conquest of the country by the Arabs that a description of the city reappears, by which time it was already in ruins. Among the major sources from this time:</p><br>
<p>Abd-al-Latif, a famous geographer of Baghdad, which in the 13th century gives a description of the ruins of the site during his trip to Egypt.</p><br>
<p>Al-Maqrizi, Egyptian historian in the 14th century, who visited the site and describes it in detail.</p><br>
<h3>Early exploration</h3><br>
<p>In 1652, Jean de Thévenot, during his trip to Egypt, identified the location of the site and its ruins, confirming the accounts of the old Arab authors for Europe. His description is brief, but represents the first step towards the exploration that will emerge after the development of archaeology. The starting point of archaeological exploration in Memphis was Napoléon Bonapartes great foray into Egypt in 1798. Research and surveys of the site confirmed the identification of Thévenot, and the first studies of its remains are carried out by scientists accompanying French soldiers. The results of the first scientific studies were published in the monumental Description de lÉgypte, a map of the region, the first to give the location of Memphis with precision.</p><br>
<h3>Nineteenth century</h3><br>
<p>The early French expeditions paved the way for explorations of a deeper scope that would follow from the 19th century until today, conducted by leading explorers, Egyptologists and major archaeological institutions. Here is a partial list:</p><br>
<p>The first excavations of the site were made by Caviglia and Sloane in 1820. They discovered the great colossus of Rameses II lying, currently on display in the museum.</p><br>
<p>Jean-François Champollion, in his trip to Egypt from 1828 to 1830 through Memphis, described the giant discovered by Caviglia and Sloane, made a few digs at the site and decrypted many of the epigraphic remains. He promised to return with more resources and more time to study, but his sudden death in 1832 meant he did not achieve this ambition.</p><br>
<p>Karl Richard Lepsius, during the Prussian expedition of 1842, made a quick survey of the ruins and created a first detailed map that would serve as the basis for all future explorations and excavations.</p><br>
<p>During the British era in Egypt, the development of agricultural technology along with the systematic cultivation of the Nile floodplains led to a considerable amount of accidental archaeological discoveries. Much of what was found would fall into the hands of major European collectors travelling the country on behalf of the great museums of London, Paris, Berlin, and Turin. It was during one of these land cultivations that peasants discovered, accidentally in 1847 near the village of Mit Rahina, elements of a Roman temple of Mithras. It was probably at this location where eleven statues were found. A review of Les Statues Ptolémaïques du Sarapieion de Memphis noted they were probably build in the 3rd Century with limestone and stucco, some standing others sitting. Rowe and Rees 1956 suggested that the theme was similar to Plato&#39;s Academy mosaic. Statues were attributed to, Pindar (seated, identified per a graffiti), a inscription at the back of his chair reads Dionysi, Demetrius of Phalerum, Orphic, aux oiseaux, Hesiode, Homer seated in the center (head was recovered), Protagoras, Thales, Heraclite, Platon (per inscription), and Aristote.</p><br>
<p>From 1852 to 1854, Joseph Hekekyan, then working for the Egyptian government, conducted geological surveys on the site, and on these occasions made a number of discoveries, such as those at Kom el-Khanzir (northeast of the great temple of Ptah). These stones decorated with reliefs from the Amarna period, originally from the ancient temple of Aten in Memphis, had almost certainly been reused in the foundations of another ruined monument. He also discovered the great colossus of Rameses II in pink granite.</p><br>
<p>This spate of archaeological discoveries gave birth to the constant risk of seeing all these cultural riches finally leave Egyptian soil. Auguste-Édouard Mariette, who visited Saqqara in 1850, became aware of the need to create an institution in Egypt responsible for the exploration and conservation of the country&#39;s archaeological treasures. He established the Egyptian Antiquities Organisation (EAO) in 1859, and organised excavations at Memphis which revealed the first evidence of the great temple of Ptah, and uncovered the royal statues of the Old Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>The earliest published papyri Greek Magical Papyri, may have originated from the region.</p><br>
<h3>Twentieth century</h3><br>
<p>The major excavations of the British Egyptologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, conducted from 1907 to 1912, uncovered the majority of the ruins as seen today. Major discoveries on the site during these excavations included the pillared hall of the temple of Ptah, the pylon of Rameses II, the great alabaster sphinx, and the great wall north of the palace of Apries. He also discovered the remains of the Temple of Amun of Siamon, and the Temple of Ptah of Merneptah. His work was interrupted during the First World War, and would later be taken up by other archaeologists, gradually uncovering some of the forgotten monuments of the ancient capital.</p><br>
<p>A timeline listing the main findings:</p><br>
<p>1914 to 1921: the excavations of the University of Pennsylvania of the Temple of Ptah of Merneptah, which yield the discovery of the adjoining palace.</p><br>
<p>1942: the EAO survey, led by Egyptologist Ahmed Badawy, discovers the small Temple of Ptah of Rameses, and the chapel of the tomb of prince Shoshenq of the 22nd dynasty.</p><br>
<p>1950: Egyptologist Labib Habachi discovers the chapel of Seti I, on behalf of the Egyptian Antiquities Organisation. The Egyptian government decides to transfer the pink granite colossus of Rameses II to Cairo. It is placed before the city&#39;s main train station, in a square subsequently named Midân Rameses.</p><br>
<p>1954: the chance discovery by roadworkers of a necropolis of the Middle Kingdom at Kom el-Fakhri.</p><br>
<p>1955 to 1957: Rudolph Anthes, on behalf of the University of Philadelphia, searches and clears the small Temple of Ptah of Rameses, and the embalming chapel of Apis.</p><br>
<p>1969: the accidental discovery of a chapel of the small Temple of Hathor.</p><br>
<p>1970 to 1984: excavations conducted by the EAO clear the small temple of Hathor; directed by Abdullah el-Sayed Mahmud, Huleil Ghali and Karim Abu Shanab.</p><br>
<p>1980: excavations of the embalming chamber of Apis, and further studies by the American Research Center in Egypt.</p><br>
<p>1982: Egyptologist Jaromir Málek studies and records the findings of the small temple of Ptah of Rameses.</p><br>
<p>1970, and 1984 to 1990: excavations by the Egypt Exploration Society in London. Further excavations of the pillared hall and pylon of Rameses II; the discovery of granite blocks bearing the annals of the reign of Amenemhat II; excavations of the tombs of high priests of Ptah; research and major explorations at the necropolis near Saqqara.</p><br>
<p>2003: renewed excavations of the small temple of Hathor by the EAO (now the Supreme Council of Antiquities).</p><br>
<p>2003 to 2004: Excavations by a combined Russian-Belgian mission in the great wall north of Memphis.</p><br>
<p>Buto , Butus , or Butosus, now Tell El Fara&#39;in  and the village of Ibtu or Abtu near the city of Desouk , was an ancient city located 95 km east of Alexandria in the Nile Delta of Egypt. The city stood on the Sebennytic branch of the Nile, near its mouth, and on the southern shore of the Butic Lake . It is the modern Kem Kasir.</p><br>
<p>Buto originally was two cities, Pe and Dep, which merged into one city that the Egyptians named Per-Wadjet. The goddess Wadjet was its local deity, often represented as a cobra, also considered the patron deity of Lower Egypt. Her oracle was located in her renowned temple in that city. An annual festival held in the city celebrated Wadjet. The city also contained a sanctuary of Horus and much later, became associated with Isis.</p><br>
<p>The city was an important site in the Predynastic era of Ancient Egypt that includes the cultural developments of ten thousand years from the Paleolithic to 3100 BC. Archaeological evidence shows that Upper Egyptian culture replaced the Buto-culture at the delta when Upper and Lower Egypt were unified, and the replacement is considered important evidence for the unification of the two portions of Egypt into one entity. At that time Wadjet joined Nekhbet, who was represented as a white vulture and held the same position as the patron of Upper Egypt, and together they were known as the two ladies who were the patrons of the unified Egypt. The image of Nekhbet joined Wadjet on the Uraeus that would encircle the crown of the pharaohs who ruled the unified Egypt.</p><br>
<p>The Greeks coined the toponym Buto under the Ptolemaic Kingdom a dynasty that ruled from 305 to 30 BC. It served as the capital, or according to Herodian, merely the principal village of the Nile Delta. Herodotus (l. c.) styled it the Chemmite nome, Ptolemy knew it as the Phthenothite nome (Φθενότης, iv. 5. § 48), and Pliny the Elder as Ptenetha.</p><br>
<p>The Greek historians record that the town was celebrated for its monolithite temple and oracle of the goddess Wadjet (Buto), whom the Greeks identified with Leto or Latona. A yearly feast was held there in honour of the goddess.</p><br>
<p>They noted that at Buto there was also a sanctuary of Horus (associated by the ancient Greeks with Apollo) and of Bastet (associated with Artemis).</p><br>
<p>The Greek name, Buto, is nearly allied to that of Muth or Maut, their appellations for Isis, as Mother of the World.</p><br>
<p>According to these same late sources, the shrew was worshipped at Buto.</p><br>
<p>Lake Vostok  is the largest of Antarctica&#39;s almost 400 known subglacial lakes.</p><br>
<p>Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold, beneath Russia&#39;s Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet, which is at 3,488 m above mean sea level. The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4,000 m under the surface of the ice, which places it at approximately 500 m below sea level.</p><br>
<p>Measuring 250 km long by 50 km wide at its widest point, The lake is divided into two deep basins by a ridge. The liquid water over the ridge is about 200 m, compared to roughly 400 m deep in the northern basin and 800 m deep in the southern.</p><br>
<p>The lake is named after Vostok Station, which in turn is named after the Vostok (Восток), a sloop-of-war ship, which means "East" in Russian. The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet. The continued research by Russian and British scientists led by 1993 to the final confirmation of the existence of the lake by J. P. Ridley using ERS-1 laser altimetry.</p><br>
<p>The overlying ice provides a continuous paleoclimatic record of 400,000 years, although the lake water itself may have been isolated for 15 to 25 million years. On 5 February 2012, a team of Russian scientists completed the longest ever ice core of 3,768 m and pierced the ice shield to the surface of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The first core of freshly frozen lake ice was obtained on 10 January 2013 at a depth of 3,406 m. However, as soon as the ice was pierced, water from the underlying lake gushed up the borehole, mixing it with the Freon and kerosene used to keep the borehole from freezing. and Saturn&#39;s moon Enceladus.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery</h2><br>
<p>Russian scientist Peter Kropotkin first proposed the idea of fresh water under Antarctic ice sheets at the end of the 19th century. He theorized that the tremendous pressure exerted by the cumulative mass of thousands of vertical meters of ice could increase the temperature at the lowest portions of the ice sheet to the point where the ice would melt. Kropotkin&#39;s theory was further developed by Russian glaciologist I. A. Zotikov, who wrote his Ph.D. thesis on this subject in 1967.</p><br>
<p>Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa used seismic soundings in the region of Vostok Station made during the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet. Kapitsa was the first to suggest the existence of a subglacial lake in the region, and the subsequent research confirmed his hypothesis.</p><br>
<p>When British scientists in Antarctica performed airborne ice-penetrating radar surveys in the early 1970s, they detected unusual radar readings at the site which suggested the presence of a liquid freshwater lake below the ice. In 1991, Jeff Ridley, a remote sensing specialist with the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College London, directed the ERS-1 satellite to turn its high-frequency array toward the center of the Antarctic ice cap. The data from ERS-1 confirmed the findings from the 1973 British surveys, but these new data were not published in the Journal of Glaciology until 1993. Space-based radar revealed that this subglacial body of fresh water is one of the largest lakes in the world, and one of some 140 subglacial lakes in Antarctica. Russian and British scientists delineated the lake in 1996 by integrating a variety of data, including airborne ice-penetrating radar imaging observations and space-based radar altimetry. It has been confirmed that the lake contains large amounts of liquid water under the more than 3 km ice cap. The lake has at least 22 cavities of liquid water, averaging 10 km each.</p><br>
<p>The lake is named after Vostok Station, which in turn is named after the Vostok (Восток), the 900-ton sloop-of-war ship sailed by one of the discoverers of Antarctica, Russian explorer Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen. The word Vostok means "East" in Russian, and the name of the station and the lake also reflects the fact that they are located in East Antarctica.</p><br>
<p>In 2005 an island was found in the central part of the lake. Then, in January 2006, the discovery of two nearby smaller lakes under the ice cap was published; they are named 90 Degrees East and Sovetskaya. It is suspected that these Antarctic subglacial lakes may be connected by a network of subglacial rivers. Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling glaciologists propose that many of the subglacial lakes of Antarctica are at least temporarily interconnected. Because of varying water pressure in individual lakes, large subsurface rivers may suddenly form and then force large amounts of water through the solid ice.</p><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 million years ago, followed by the Indian subcontinent, in the early Cretaceous (about 125 million years ago). About 66 million years ago, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with marsupial fauna and an extensive temperate rainforest.</p><br>
<p>The Lake Vostok basin is a small (50 km) tectonic feature within the overall setting of a several-hundred-kilometer-wide continental collision zone between the Gamburtsev Mountain Range, a subglacial mountain range and the Dome C region. The lake water is cradled on a bed of sediments 70 m thick, offering the possibility that they contain a unique record of the climate and life in Antarctica before the ice cap formed.</p><br>
<h2>Traits</h2><br>
<p>The lake water is estimated to have been sealed off under the thick ice sheet about 15 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The coldest naturally occurring temperature ever observed on Earth, -89 &deg;C, was recorded at Vostok Station on 21 July 1983. while the ice sheet itself insulates the lake from cold temperatures on the surface.</p><br>
<p>Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment, one that is expected to be supersaturated with nitrogen and oxygen, measuring 2.5 l of nitrogen and oxygen per 1 kg of water, that is 50 times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth&#39;s surface. The sheer weight and pressure around 345 bar of the continental ice cap on top of Lake Vostok is estimated to contribute to the high gas concentration.</p><br>
<p>Besides dissolving in the water, oxygen and other gases are trapped in a type of structure called a clathrate. In clathrate structures, gases are enclosed in an icy cage and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high-pressure depths of Lake Vostok and would become unstable if brought to the surface.</p><br>
<p>In April 2005, German, Russian, and Japanese researchers found that the lake has tides. Depending on the position of the Sun and the Moon, the surface of the lake rises about 12 mm. The lake is under complete darkness, under 355 bar of pressure, and expected to be rich in oxygen, so there is speculation that any organisms inhabiting the lake could have evolved in a manner unique to this environment. There is a 1 microtesla magnetic anomaly on the east coast of the lake, spanning 105 by. Researchers hypothesize that the anomaly may be caused by a thinning of the Earth&#39;s crust in that location.</p><br>
<p>Living Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus micro-organisms have been found in Lake Vostok&#39;s deep ice core drillings; they are an extant surface-dwelling species. This suggests the presence of a deep biosphere utilizing a geothermal system of the bedrock encircling the subglacial lake. There is optimism that microbial life in the lake may be possible despite high pressure, constant cold, low nutrient input, potentially high oxygen concentration and an absence of sunlight.</p><br>
<h2>Research</h2><br>
<p>Researchers working at Vostok Station produced one of the world&#39;s longest ice cores in 1998. A joint Russian, French, and United States team drilled and analyzed the core, which is 3,623 m long. Ice samples from cores drilled close to the top of the lake have been assessed to be as old as 420,000 years. The assumption is that the lake has been sealed from the surface since the ice sheet formed, 15 million years ago. Drilling of the core was deliberately halted roughly 100 m above the suspected boundary between the ice sheet and the liquid waters of the lake. This was to prevent contamination of the lake with the 60-ton column of Freon and kerosene used to prevent the borehole from collapsing and freezing over.</p><br>
<p>From this core, specifically from ice that is thought to have formed from lake water freezing onto the base of the ice sheet, extremophile microbes were found, suggesting that the lake water supports life. Scientists suggested that the lake could possess a unique habitat for ancient bacteria with an isolated microbial gene pool containing characteristics developed perhaps 500,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>In January 2011, the head of the Russian Antarctic Expedition, Valery Lukin, announced that his team had only 50 m of ice left to drill in order to reach the water. The researchers then switched to a new thermal drill head with a "clean" silicone oil fluid to drill the rest of the way. Instead of drilling all the way into the water, they said they would stop just above it when a sensor on the thermal drill detected free water. At that point, the drill was to be stopped and extracted from the bore hole. Removal of the drill would lower the pressure beneath it, drawing water into the hole to be left to freeze, creating a plug of ice in the bottom of the hole. Drilling stopped on 5 February 2011 at a depth of 3,720 m so that the research team could make it off the ice before the beginning of the Antarctic winter season. The drilling team left by aircraft on 6 February 2011.</p><br>
<p>By plan, the following summer, the team was to drill down again to take a sample of that ice and analyze it. The Russians resumed drilling into the lake in January 2012 and reached the upper surface of the water on 6 February 2012. The researchers allowed the rushing lake water to freeze within the bore hole and months later, they collected ice core samples of this newly formed ice and sent to the Laboratory for Glaciology and Environmental Geophysics in Grenoble, France, for analysis.</p><br>
<h3>Biology results</h3><br>
<h4>United Kingdom and United States</h4><br>
<p>Scientists first reported evidence of microbes in the accretion ice in 1999. Since then, a different team led by Scott O. Rogers has been identifying a variety of bacteria and fungi from accretion ice (not from the subglacial water layer) collected during USA drilling projects in the 1990s. According to him, this indicates that the lake below the ice is not sterile but contains a unique ecosystem. Then Scott Rogers published in July 2013 that his team performed nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) sequencing and the results allowed deduction of the metabolic pathways represented in the accretion ice and, by extension, in the lake. The team found 3,507 unique gene sequences, and approximately 94% of the sequences were from bacteria and 6% were from Eukarya. Taxonomic classifications (to genus and/or species) or identification were possible for 1,623 of the sequences. In general, the taxa were similar to organisms previously described from lakes, brackish water, marine environments, soil, glaciers, ice, lake sediments, deep-sea sediments, deep-sea thermal vents, animals and plants. Sequences from aerobic, anaerobic, psychrophilic, thermophilic, halophilic, alkaliphilic, acidophilic, desiccation-resistant, autotrophic, and heterotrophic organisms were present, including a number from multicellular eukaryotes.</p><br>
<p>However, microbiologist David Pearce of the University of Northumbria in Newcastle, UK, stated that the DNA could simply be contamination from the drilling process, and not representative of Lake Vostok itself. The old ice cores were drilled in the 1990s to look for evidence of past climates buried in the ice, rather than for life, so the drilling equipment was not sterilized. Also Sergey Bulat, a Lake Vostok expert at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in Gatchina, Russia, doubts that any of the cells or DNA fragments in the samples would belong to organisms that might actually exist in the lake. He says that it is very probable that the samples are heavily contaminated with tissue and microbes from the outside world.</p><br>
<h4>Russia and France</h4><br>
<p>Russian and French scientists have been carrying out molecular DNA studies of the water from Lake Vostok that was frozen in the borehole, by constructing numerous DNA libraries, which are collections of fragments of DNA that allow scientists to identify which species of bacteria may belong to. Samples taken from the lake so far contain about one part of kerosene per 1000 of water, and they are contaminated with bacteria previously present in the drill bit and the kerosene drilling fluid. However, Vladimar Korolev, the laboratory head of the study at the same institution, said that the bacteria could in principle be a contaminant that use kerosene—the antifreeze used during drilling—as an energy source.</p><br>
<p>Critics from the scientific community state that no valuable information can be obtained until they can test clean samples of lake water, uncontaminated by drilling fluid.</p><br>
<p>In January 2015, the Russian press stated that Russian scientists have made a new "clean" borehole into Lake Vostok using a special 50-kilogram probe that collected about 1 liter of water not adulterated by the antifreezing fluid. Science 30 October 2015. Vol. 350 no. 6260 p. 494</p><br>
<h3>Contamination due to drilling fluids</h3><br>
<p>The drilling project has been opposed by some environmental groups and scientists who have argued that hot-water drilling would have a more limited environmental impact. The main concern is that the lake could become contaminated with the antifreeze that the Russians used to keep the bore hole from refreezing. Scientists of the United States National Research Council have taken the position that it should be assumed that microbial life exists in Lake Vostok and that after such a long isolation, any life forms in the lake require strict protection from contamination.</p><br>
<p>The original drilling technique employed by the Russians involved the use of Freon and kerosene to lubricate the borehole and prevent it from collapsing and freezing over; 60 ST of these chemicals have been used thus far on the ice above Lake Vostok. Though the Russians claim to have improved their operations, they continue to use the same borehole, which has already been contaminated with kerosene. According to the head of Russian Antarctic Expeditions, Valery Lukin, new equipment was developed by researchers at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute that would ensure the lake remains uncontaminated upon intrusion. Lukin has repeatedly reassured other signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty System that the drilling will not affect the lake, arguing that on breakthrough, water will rush up the borehole, freeze, and seal the other fluids out.</p><br>
<p>Some environmentalist groups remain unconvinced by these arguments. The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition has argued that this manner of drilling is a profoundly misguided step which endangers Lake Vostok and other subglacial lakes in Antarctica (which some scientists are convinced are inter-linked with Lake Vostok). The coalition has asserted that "it would be far preferable to join with other countries to penetrate a smaller and more isolated lake before re-examining whether penetration of Lake Vostok is environmentally defensible. If we are wise, the Lake will be allowed to reveal its secrets in due course."</p><br>
<p>However, Lukin claims that hot-water drilling is much more dangerous for the microbiotic fauna, as it would boil the living species, plus disturb the entire structure of water layers of the lake. Additionally, hot-water drilling would have required more power than the Russian expedition could have generated at their remote camp.</p><br>
<p>Sarmizegetusa Regia, also Sarmisegetusa, Sarmisegethusa, Sarmisegethuza, Ζαρμιζεγεθούσα  or Ζερμιζεγεθούση , was the capital and the most important military, religious and political centre of the Dacians prior to the wars with the Roman Empire. Erected on top of a 1200 m high mountain, the fortress, comprising six citadels, was the core of a strategic defensive system in the Orăştie Mountains .</p><br>
<p>Sarmizegetusa Regia should not be confused with Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, the Roman capital of Dacia built by Roman Emperor Trajan some 40 km away, which was not the Dacian capital. Sarmizegetusa Ulpia was discovered earlier, was known already in the early 1900s, and was initially mistaken for the Dacian capital, a confusion which led to incorrect conclusions being made regarding the military history and organization of the Dacians.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain the origin of the name Sarmizegetusa. The most important of these ascribe the following possible meanings to the city&#39;s name:</p><br>
<p>‘Citadel built of palisades on a mountain peak’ from zermi (*gher-mi ‘mountain peak, top’, cf. *gher ‘stone; high’) and zeget (*geg(H)t)</p><br>
<p>‘City of the warm river’ from zarmi ‘warm’ (cognate with Sanskrit gharma ‘warm’) and zeget ‘flow’ (cognate with Sanskrit sarj- in sarjana- ‘flow’ and Bactrian harez- in harezâna ‘id.’), the city being named after the nearby river Sargetia</p><br>
<p>‘Palace illuminating the world of life’ from zaryma ‘palace’ (cf. Sanskrit harmya ‘palace’), zegeth ‘world of life’ (cf. Sanskrit jagat- ‘go’, and jigat- ‘mobility; world of life’) and usa ‘illuminating, enlightening; burning’)</p><br>
<p>‘Capital/royal city of the Sarmatians and the Getae’ (in Latin, literally SARMIS-ET-GETUS-A (dative case) REGIA)</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<p>Sarmizegetusa Regia contained a citadel and residential areas with dwellings and workshops as well as a sacred zone.</p><br>
<p>The fortress, a quadrilateral formed by massive stone blocks (murus dacicus), was constructed on five terraces, on an area of almost 30,000 m².</p><br>
<p>The sacred zone — among the most important and largest circular and rectangular Dacian sanctuaries – includes a number of rectangular temples, the bases of their supporting columns still visible in regular arrays. Perhaps the most enigmatic construction at the site is the large circular sanctuary. It consisted of a setting of timber posts in the shape of a D, surrounded by a timber circle which in turn was surrounded by a low stone kerb. The layout of the timber settings bears some resemblance to the stone monument at Stonehenge in England.</p><br>
<p>An artifact referred to as the “Andesite Sun" seems to have been used as a sundial. Since it is known that Dacian culture was influenced by contact with Hellenisitic Greece, the sundial may have resulted from the Dacians&#39; exposure to Hellenistic learning in geometry and astronomy.</p><br>
<p>Civilians lived below the citadel itself in settlements built on artificial terraces, such as the one at Feţele Albe. A system of ceramic pipes channeled running water into the residences of the nobility.</p><br>
<p>The archaeological inventory found at the site demonstrates that Dacian society had a relatively high standard of living.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Variants of the Name of the City</h3><br>
<p>Historical records show considerable variation in the spelling of the name of the Dacian capital:</p><br>
<p>Zarmigethusa, Sarmisegethusa (Ptolemy, Geography, 2nd century AD)</p><br>
<p>Zermizegethusa (Dio Cassius 2nd-3rd century)</p><br>
<p>Sarmazege (Anonymous Geographer from Ravenna, around 700 AD)</p><br>
<p>Sarmategte (Tabula Peutingeriana, 13th century)</p><br>
<p>Zarmizegetusa and Sarmizegetusa (from inscriptions)</p><br>
<p>Sargetia (name of the river nearby)</p><br>
<h3>Pre-Roman era</h3><br>
<p>Towards the end of his reign, Burebista transferred the Geto-Dacian capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa. Serving as the Dacian capital for at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegethusa reached its zenith under King Decebal. Archeological findings suggest that the Dacian god Zalmoxis and his chief priest had an important role in Dacian society at this time. They have also shed new light on the political, economic and scientific development of the Dacians and their successful assimilation of technical and scientific knowledge from the Greek and Romans.</p><br>
<p>The site has yielded two especially notable finds:</p><br>
<p>A medical kit, in a brassbound wooden box with an iron handle, containing a scalpel, tweezers, powdered pumice and miniature pots for pharmaceuticals</p><br>
<p>A huge vase, 24 in (0.6 m) high and 41 in (1 m) across, bearing an inscription in the Roman alphabet: DECEBAL PER SCORILO, i.e. ‘Decebalus, son (cf. Latin puer) of Scorilus’</p><br>
<p>The smithies north of the sanctuary also provide evidence of the Dacians skill in metalworking: findings include tools such as meter-long tongs, hammers and anvils which were used to make some 400 metallic artefacts — scythes, sickles, hoes, rakes, picks, pruning hooks, knives, plowshares, and carpenters tools — as well as weapons such as daggers, curved Dacian scimitars, spearpoints, and shield-bosses.</p><br>
<p>Nevertheless, the flowering of Dacian civilization apparently underway during the reign of Decebalus came to an abrupt end when Trajan&#39;s legions destroyed the city and deported its population.</p><br>
<h3>The defensive system</h3><br>
<p>The Dacians capital’s defensive system includes six Dacian fortresses — Sarmizegetusa, Costești-Blidaru, Piatra Roșie, Costeşti-Cetățuie, Căpâlna and Băniţa.</p><br>
<p>All 6 have been named UNESCO World heritage sites.</p><br>
<h3>Roman era</h3><br>
<p>Sarmisegetusa&#39;s walls were partly dismantled at the end of First Dacian war in AD 102, when Dacia was invaded by the Emperor Trajan of the Roman Empire. The Dacians rebuilt them. The Romans systematically destroyed them again in 106 and deported the inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The Roman conquerors established a military garrison at Sarmisegetusa Regia. Later, the capital of Roman Dacia was established 40 km from the ruined Dacian capital, and was named after it - Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa.</p><br>
<p>Piraeus  is a port city in the region of Attica, Greece. Piraeus is located within the Athens urban area, 12 km southwest from its city center , and lies along the east coast of the Saronic Gulf.</p><br>
<p>According to the 2011 census, Piraeus had a population of 163,688 people within its administrative limits, making it the fourth largest municipality in Greece and the second largest within the urban area of the Greek capital, following the municipality of Athens. The municipality of Piraeus and several other suburban municipalities within the regional unit of Piraeus form the greater Piraeus area, with a total population of 448,997.</p><br>
<p>Piraeus has a long recorded history, dating to ancient Greece. The city was largely developed in the early 5th century BC, when it was selected to serve as the port city of classical Athens and was transformed into a prototype harbour, concentrating all the import and transit trade of Athens. During the Golden Age of Athens the Long Walls were constructed to connect Athens with Piraeus. Consequently, it became the chief harbour of ancient Greece, but declined gradually after the 4th century AD, growing once more in the 19th century, especially after Athens declaration as the capital of Greece. In the modern era, Piraeus is a large city, bustling with activity and an integral part of Athens, acting as home to the countrys biggest harbour and bearing all the characteristics of a huge marine and commercial-industrial centre.</p><br>
<p>The port of Piraeus is the chief port in Greece, the largest passenger port in Europe and the second largest in the world, servicing about 20 million passengers annually. With a throughput of 1.4 million TEUs, Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe and the top container port in the Eastern Mediterranean. The city hosted events in both the 1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens. The University of Piraeus is one of the largest universities in Greece.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient and medieval times</h3><br>
<p>Piraeus, which roughly means the place over the passage, has been inhabited since the 26th century BC. In prehistoric times, Piraeus was a rocky island consisting of the steep hill of Munichia, modern-day Kastella, and was connected to the mainland by a low-lying stretch of land that was flooded with sea water most of the year, and used as a salt field whenever it dried up. Consequently, it was called the Halipedon, meaning the salt field, and its muddy soil made it a tricky passage. Through the centuries, the area was increasingly silted and flooding ceased, and thus by early classical times the land passage was made safe. In ancient Greece, Piraeus assumed its importance with its three deep water harbours, the main port of Cantharus and the two smaller of Zea and Munichia, and gradually replaced the older and shallow Phaleron harbour, which fell into disuse.</p><br>
<p>In the late 6th century BC, the area caught attention due to its advantages. In 511 BC, the hill of Munichia was fortified by Hippias and four years later Piraeus became a deme of Attica by Cleisthenes. According to the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, in 493 BC, Themistocles initiated the fortification works in Piraeus and later advised the Athenians to take advantage of its natural harbours strategic potential instead of using the sandy bay of Phaleron. In 483 BC, a new silver vein was discovered in Laurion mines, which was utilized to fund the construction of 200 triremes, the Athenian fleet which was transferred to Piraeus and was built in its shipyards. The Athenian fleet played a crucial role in the battle of Salamis against the Persians in 480 BC. From then on Piraeus was permanently used as the navy base. After the second Persian invasion of Greece, Themistocles fortified the three harbours of Piraeus and created the neosoikoi (ship houses); the Themistoclean Walls were completed in 471 BC, turning Piraeus into a great military and commercial harbour. The citys fortification was farther reinforced later by the construction of the Long Walls under Cimon and Pericles, with which Piraeus was connected to Athens. Meanwhile, Piraeus was rebuilt to the famous grid plan of architect Hippodamus of Miletus, known as the Hippodamian plan, and the main agora of the city was named after him in honour. As a result, Piraeus flourished and became a port of high security and great commercial activity, and a city bustling with life.</p><br>
<p>During the Peloponnesian War, Piraeus suffered its first setback. In the second year of the war, the first cases of the Athens plague were recorded in Piraeus. In 404 BC, the Spartan fleet under Lysander blockaded Piraeus and subsequently Athens surrendered to the Spartans, putting an end to the Delian League and the war itself. Piraeus would follow the fate of Athens and was to bear the brunt of the Spartans rage, as the citys walls and the Long Walls were torn down; the Athenian fleet surrendered to the victors and some of the triremes burnt, while the neosoikoi were also pulled down. As a result, the tattered and unfortified port city was not able to compete with prosperous Rhodes, which controlled commerce. In 403 BC, Munichia was seized by Thrasybulus and the exiles from Phyle, in the battle of Munichia, where the Phyleans defeated the Thirty Tyrants of Athens, but in the following battle of Piraeus the exiles were defeated by Spartan forces.</p><br>
<p>After the reinstatement of democracy, Conon rebuilt the walls in 393 BC, founded the temple of Aphrodite Euploia and the sanctuary of Zeus Sotiros and Athena, and built the famous Skeuotheke (arsenal) of Philon, the ruins of which have been discovered at Zea harbour. The reconstruction of Piraeus went on during the period of Alexander the Great, but this revival of the town was quashed by Roman Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who captured and totally destroyed Piraeus in 86 BC. The destruction was completed in 395 AD by the Goths under Alaric I. Piraeus was led to a long period of decline which lasted for fifteen centuries. During the Byzantine period the harbour of Piraeus was occasionally used for the Byzantine fleet, but it was very far from the capital city of Constantinople.</p><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, the port was usually called by the Venetians the "port of Sithines" (that is, of Athens) and in the 14th century, the name "Lion" is first attested, after the colossal ancient sculpture of a lion, the Piraeus Lion, which stood at the harbor&#39;s entrance. This later become Porto Leone (Πόρτο Λεόνε). It was also called Porto Drako (Πόρτο Δράκο) by Greeks, drako meaning not just "dragon", but any monster.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>When Piraeus was taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1456, it became known as Aslan Liman ("Lion Harbor"), a translation of the existing Venetian name.</p><br>
<p>The Piraeus Lion itself was looted in 1687 by Francesco Morosini during his expedition against Athens (part of the Morean War) and was carried to the Venetian Arsenal, where it still stands today. A copy of the lion statue is on display at the Archaeological Museum of Piraeus.</p><br>
<p>Under Ottoman rule, especially before the beginning of the Greek War of Independence, Piraeus was mostly deserted, except for the monastery of Saint Spyridon (1590) and a customs house, and it was only used occasionally as a commercial port. Although there were numerous land owners, Athenians did not live in the area.</p><br>
<p>There were at least two failed attempts to create a new town, the first in 1792 by bringing a population from Hydra and the second during the Greek War of Independence in 1825 by the installation of people from Psara, but it was not until 1829 that permanent habitation of the area was restarted. Piraeus at first developed into a small town with few dwellings, far from its glorious past as a prosperous city, with its population consisting largely of fishermen.</p><br>
<h3>Modern era</h3><br>
<p>With the creation of the modern Greek state and the proclamation of Athens as its capital in 1832, the port, still named Πόρτο Λεόνε Porto Leone or Πόρτο Δράκο Porto Draco, again acquired a reason for growth, and began to develop into a commercial and industrial centre. Migrants, mainly from the Aegean Islands, continued to arrive. A town plan was also drawn up and approved by King Otto, but not completely fulfilled, as it was revolutionary for its time.</p><br>
<p>The municipality was established in 1835, reviving the ancient name Piraeus. Following petitions from the new and emerging prosperous bourgeoisie, municipal elections were held to elect a mayor for the city, Kyriakos Serfiotis of Hydra. Piraeus had around 300 inhabitants at this time.</p><br>
<p>Piraeus, from a deserted small town, quickly became the leading port and the second largest city in Greece, with its prime geographical location and closeness to the Greek capital helping it continually to grow, attracting people from across the country. A number of events contributed to the development of the city; among these were its ultimate declaration as the leading port of Greece, the completion of the Athens-Piraeus Railway in 1869, the industrial development of the area in the 1860s, and the creation of the Corinth Canal in 1893, all of which left Piraeus more strategically important than ever. New buildings were constructed to cover the necessities of this growth, such as educational institutions, churches, the Stock Exchange Building, the Town Hall, the Central Market, the Post Office Building and charity institutions; the port was also supplemented and modernised, with dredging operations, the construction of the Royal Landing, the Troumba Pier and the quay-ways up to the Customs House area, the commencement of construction work on the Outer Moles and the completion of permanent dry-docks. At the end of the 19th century, Piraeus had a population of 51,020 people.</p><br>
<p>The establishment of the Port Committee in 1911, which controlled the works of construction and maintenance of the port, and the Piraeus Port Authority in 1930, which made a more efficient job of managing a port slowly increasing in traffic, played a catalytic role in the citys development. The town flourished and neo-classical buildings were erected; one of them, which continues to ornament the present town, is the Pireaus Municipal Theatre, an excellent example of the areas once wider neoclassical architecture. After the decisive period for Greece of 1912–1922, Piraeus experienced a major demographic explosion, with its population almost doubling to reach 251,659 in 1928 from 133,482 in 1920, an increase owed to the arrival of Greek refugees from Asia Minor after the 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish War and the subsequent population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Although there was an increase in the labour force, a variety of social problems also emerged with the concentration of new populations in the suburbs of the old city, such as Nikaia, Keratsini, Drapetsona and Korydallos.</p><br>
<p>The involvement of Greece in World War II came as a major setback to the city&#39;s progress. After the war, the city began its development once more, as damage to the port and the city were repaired and new additions took shape after 1955. Piraeus is now the third largest municipality in Greece; the city proper with its suburbs form the Piraeus urban area, which is incorporated in the Athens urban area, thus making Piraeus an integral part of the Greek capital. The port of Piraeus is now an important international port, and the largest in the country.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Piraeus is situated in the southwest part of the central plain of Attica, also widely known as the Attica Basin, which the Athens agglomeration (urban area) sprawls across. Piraeus is bounded by the Mount Aigaleo to the northwest, and the Saronic Gulf to the south and west, and connected with the rest of the Athens Urban Area to the east and northeast. The "city proper" of Piraeus consists of a rocky peninsula, originally an island, featuring three natural harbours. In addition to the central one, called Kantharos in ancient times, the smaller harbours to the east are still in use: Zea, also known as Pasalimani, and Munichia, the smallest of the three and widely known as Mikrolimano. Nowadays, the Piraeus larger urban area includes the suburban harbours of Drapetsona, Keratsini and Perama. The central harbour is a hub of commercial and passenger shipping, whereas the two smaller ones cater to recreational and fishing craft as well as passenger hydrofoils. The municipality has an area of 10.865 km.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Under Köppen climate classification Piraeus has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) according to the Hellenic National Meteorological Service data for the period 1960-2004.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>Piraeus is the third most populous municipality in Greece with an official population of 163,688 (in 2011). The Piraeus urban area, part of the greater Athens Urban Area, comprises the city proper (municipality of Piraeus) and four other suburban municipalities, having a total population of 448,997 people (in 2011).</p><br>
<p>The table below shows the historical population of Piraeus in recent times.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Archaeological sites</h3><br>
<p>Among the archaeological sites of Piraeus, parts of the ancient Themistoclean Walls and Eetioneia, a mole in the entrance to the harbour, are still preserved in good condition. Excavations in Pasalimani revealed the Skeuotheke, an ancient structure where ship rigging equipment was stored, designed by architect Philon. In Kastella the Syrangion is to be found, which probably served as a sanctuary to the local hero Syrango, and the Cave of Arethusa, both prehistoric. Ruins of the ancient city at the basement of the cathedral of Agia Triada and the ancient Theater of Zea next to the Archaeological Museum, the ancient neosoikoi in Zea, Munichia and Kantharos navy yard, can also be seen.</p><br>
<h4>Bronze statues</h4><br>
<p>The discovery of four bronze statues at a construction site near the Tinaneios Gardens in Piraeus, Greece on July 18, 1959 is still remembered by an entire generation as a momentous discovery in Modern Greek archaeology. The statues are now featured in the Piraeus Museum, and are largely responsible for the creation of the modern Archaeological Museum of Piraeus. While drilling in order to lay pipes, the Hydrex Company came across the hand of a bronze kouros (youth) at a depth of approximately 1.50 meters. Excavations began after the custodian of the local museum, Dimitrios Kalantonis, and the Director of the Archaeological Service, Yiannis Papdimitriou, were informed. Four noteworthy bronze statues were uncovered in the continuing excavations – the Archaic Apollo (the kouros whose hand had originally been seen), the large Artemis, a smaller Artemis, and a larger-than-life Athena. However, the enthusiasm for the dig led to poor documentation of the details and context of the finds, leaving rare photos taken by the media or public as the only record. There are multiple theories as to how the statues came to be carefully arranged within what is thought to have been a small square room. When and why the statues were apparently hidden is open to debate, along with their origins, date, and style. One early theory suggests that the statues had been stored near the harbour with the intention of being shipped to Italy; however, the presence of coins near the statues dating from a period of war opens up another possibility – that the statues were hidden for safe keeping, and then lost when the building was destroyed. Dating the concealment of the statues is another issue, as they may have been buried anytime between the 1st century BC and the 3rd century AD. The statue of the kouros was recognized to be of Apollo, and dated to the 5th century BC. The other three female statues, from the 4th century BC, show a different, more human, form of sculpture that sets them apart from their older companion.</p><br>
<h3>Leisure and entertainment</h3><br>
<p>The city provides a wide variety of entertainment. Piraeus is famous for its tavernas and restaurants, renowned for their cuisine. Most are spread along the coasts of Mikrolimano and Piraiki, specializing in seafood and attracting many visitors, including tourists. The nightlife of the city is vibrant, with numerous bars and nightclubs. Plenty of major shopping areas can be found on the central avenues of Piraeus, Iroon Polytechneiou and Grigoriou Labraki.</p><br>
<p>One of the most popular events in Piraeus is the Ecocinema International Film Festival, staged annually in late February. During this event, a number of films are screened at the Atticon Cinema and the Cineac Cinema, both of which are to be found within the citys Town Hall Square. In the summer, the Maritime Festival and the Piraeus Rock Wave Festival take place, while the Three Kings Way Festival marks the beginning of the carnival, with all the associated costumes and entertainment.</p><br>
<p>The Municipal Theater of city has been the center of the arts in Piraeus, hosting a variety of cultural events including theater, dance and music events. The open air Veakeio Theater in Kastella is a popular destination during the summer and hosts concerts, folk music bands and Greek and foreign troupes, while the Menandreio Theater, widely known as Delfinario, is popular for hosting variety shows. Village Park, a large multipurpose center and part of the Village Cinemas built in suburban Agios Ioannis Rentis, attracts a large number of people from the whole of Athens, offering a diversity of shops, cafes, and restaurant, in addition to the twenty cinemas making it the largest cinema complex in Greece. Next to it, the Allou Fun Park is the most recent and largest amusement theme park in Athens, offering its numerous rides and attractions, restaurants and pastry shops.</p><br>
<h3>Museums</h3><br>
<p>Piraeus is home to several museums and other institutions of great interest within their field. The Archaeological Museum of Piraeus displays objects from classical antiquity found at the area of Piraeus and the greater coastal zone, typical of the history and culture of the ancient city. The city also houses the Hellenic Maritime Museum, with exhibits relating to the nautical tradition of Greece, the Merchant Shipping History Institute Exhibition, the Panos Aravantinos Decor Museum, the Georgios Averof Museum Ship and the Museum of Electric Railways, hosted in the Piraeus station. The Municipal Art Gallery and the Municipal Library, one of the largest in Greece, are also prominent within the culture of Piraeus.</p><br>
<h3>Sport</h3><br>
<p>Traditionally, Piraeus has played a major role in Greek sport. The city boasts the most popular and one of the most prestigious Greek multisport clubs, Olympiacos CFP. The other major club is Ethnikos Piraeus, with a long athletic tradition, while other historic clubs are Atromitos Piraeus F.C. and Peiraikos Syndesmos. Others historic clubs from another city of Piraeus are Proodeftiki F.C. of Nikaia and Ionikos of Nikaia.</p><br>
<p>In football, Olympiacos F.C. is the most successful club in Greece, having won by far more titles than any other Greek football club, and its ground is at the Karaiskakis Stadium, in Neo Faliro. Ethnikos Piraeus F.C. had a longstanding presence in Super League Greece and also used the Karaiskakis Stadium as home ground, but in recent years the club has competed in lower divisions and currently plays home matches at the Helleniko Stadium, in Ellinikon. Proodeftiki F.C. of Nikaia had a longstanding presence in Super League Greece and also used the Karaiskakis Stadium as home ground, but currently uses as home ground the Municipal Stadium Nikaia. Ionikos of Nikaia had a longstanding presence in Super League Greece and its home ground is the Municipal Stadium Neapoli.</p><br>
<p>In basketball, Olympiacos B.C. is the only major club from Piraeus, one of the most successful at domestic and European level, and its home arena is the Peace and Friendship Stadium, while the volleyball department of the same club, Olympiacos S.C., is the dominant domestically and has made great success in European competitions as well. Piraeus rides really high in water polo, where Ethnikos Piraeus and Olympiacos departments have entirely dominated in Greece; the first is considered the "Emperor" of the sport and the latter is the only Greek water polo club to have been crowned European Champion.</p><br>
<p>First class sporting facilities can be found in Piraeus. The Karaiskakis Stadium, built in 1885 as a bicycle track, enlarged in 1964 and completely rebuilt in 2004, is the second largest football venue in Greece with a capacity of 33,334 and one of the most modern in Europe. It hosted the 1971 UEFA Cup Winners&#39; Cup Final and several games of the football tournament in the 2004 Summer Olympics, while it was used as a velodrome in the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Peace and Friendship Stadium, part of the Faliro Coastal Zone Olympic Complex and built in 1985 opposite to the Karaiskakis Stadium, is the second largest indoor arena in the country and one of the most impressive around Europe, having hosted multiply major international events in several sports, including the volleyball tournament in the 2004 Athens Olympics, the 1998 FIBA World Championship, the EuroBasket 1987 and the Final Four of the Euroleague 1993.</p><br>
<h2>Maritime industry</h2><br>
<p>In addition to being the largest marine–based shipping centre of Greece, Piraeus is also the commercial hub of Greek shipping, with most of Greeces shipowners basing their commercial operations there, largely centred around the street Akti Miaouli. In its capacities as host to Greek shipping, Piraeus has been affected significantly by the various governments of Greece. Following World War II, the Greek government attempted to nationalize the proceeds of the insurance payments given to Greek shipowners who had lost vessels as a result of those vessels having been commandeered by the Allied Forces; the insurance had been provided by Lloyds of London and guaranteed by the coalition of the allied forces. Although Greek shipowners ultimately won their case against the Greek government in the British courts, most were uninterested in continuing to base their headquarters in Piraeus, both out of distrust of the Greek government, and because the war had left the greater Athens area in a state of severe poverty. As a result, Greece&#39;s shipowners left Piraeus en masse in favour of operations in London, New York, Alexandria and other major shipping cities.</p><br>
<h3>1967 military junta</h3><br>
<p>In 1967, when a group of colonels staged a coup d&#39;état against the government, in order to increase desperately needed revenues, the junta offered lavish incentives for Greek shipowners to bring their companies back to Piraeus. This included both tax incentives and other inducements, as highlighted by the fact that Aristotle Onassis was allowed to purchase the entire island of Skorpios, which otherwise would have been a violation of Greek coastline laws.</p><br>
<h3>1974 democratic government</h3><br>
<p>After the junta fell in 1974, the successive democratic government generally maintained the deregulation of Greek-based shipping, and many shipowners have maintained commercial operations there since. Today, however, as a result of traffic congestion plaguing the Athens area, and the fact that most shipowners reside in the lavish northern suburbs of Athens, many shipowners have opted once again to move their bases away from Piraeus to Northern Athens.</p><br>
<h3>Shipping today</h3><br>
<p>Piraeus, nevertheless, is still a major centre for Greek and international shipping, and bi-annually acts as the focus for a major shipping convention, known as Posidonia, which attracts maritime industry professionals from all over the world. Piraeus today is one of the largest ports in Europe, and the annual number of 19 million passengers makes it the third largest worldwide in terms of passenger transportation. Piraeus is currently Greeces third-busiest port in terms of tons of goods transported, behind Aghioi Theodoroi and Thessaloniki. The central port serves ferry routes to almost every island in the eastern portion of Greece, the island of Crete, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, and much of the northern and the eastern Aegean Sea, while the western part of the port is used for cargo services. Stratfor intelligence quotes Piraeus Port as now owned by a Chinese company. This may be part of Chinas "Belt and Road" initiative.</p><br>
<p>The following operators serve the port:</p><br>
<p>Minoan Lines</p><br>
<p>ANEK Lines</p><br>
<p>Blue Star Ferries</p><br>
<p>GA Ferries</p><br>
<p>NEL Lines</p><br>
<p>LANE Lines</p><br>
<p>Aegean Speed Lines</p><br>
<p>Hellenic Seaways</p><br>
<p>Louis Cruise Lines</p><br>
<p>Monarch Classic Cruises</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Piraeus is served by autobuses, trolleybuses (ILPAP), Proastiakos, the Athens-Piraeus Electric Railways (ISAP) and the Athens Tram. Piraeus station refers to the two railway termini located next to the seaport.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>The city of Piraeus is marked by the diversity of culture among its neighbourhoods. The hill of Kastella is one of the most prosperous and attractive neighbourhoods of the city, with a panoramic view over Athens and the Saronic Gulf. Its elegance comes from its numerous neo-classical mansions, while the Veakeio Theater and a church dedicated to the Prophet Elijah are the most popular buildings. The coastal area of Neo Faliro has been upgraded and is also prominent, with the Peace and Friendship Stadium and the Karaiskakis Stadium, an indoor arena and a football ground respectively lying opposite one another, predominating. Mikrolimano and Bay of Zea, the smaller harbours of the city, attract large numbers of visitors with their picturesque vistas and vigorous nightlife, hosting fishing boats as well as yachts and cruise ships. Kaminia, by contrast, is a working-class neighbourhood which still preserves the traditional look of an earlier period. The Municipal Theater in downtown Piraeus was built in 1885 and remains an impressive neo-classical building. Located across from the Neo-Byzantine Piraeus Cathedral, it forms one of the most renowned landmarks of the city and a popular meeting place.</p><br>
<h2>Cinema</h2><br>
<p>Movies filmed in Piraeus include:</p><br>
<p>Stella (1955 film)</p><br>
<p>The Angry Hills (film)</p><br>
<p>Never on Sunday</p><br>
<p>The Red Lanterns</p><br>
<p>The Burglars, starring Jean-Paul Belmondo</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Piraeus is twinned with:</p><br>
<h2>Mayors of Piraeus</h2><br>
<p>Kyriakos Serfiotis (1835–1841)</p><br>
<p>Petros Skylitsis-Homiridis (1841–1845) and (1848–1854)</p><br>
<p>Antonios Theoharis (1845–1848)</p><br>
<p>Loukas Rallis (1855–1866)</p><br>
<p>Demetrios Moutzopoulos (1866–1874)</p><br>
<p>Tryfon Moutzopoulos (1874–1883) and (1895–1903)</p><br>
<p>Aristides Skylitsis (1883–1887)</p><br>
<p>Theodoros Retsinas (1887–1895)</p><br>
<p>Pavlos Damalis (1903–1907)</p><br>
<p>Dimisthenis Skylidis-Homiridis (1907–1914)</p><br>
<p>Anastasios Panagiotopoulos (1914–1932)</p><br>
<p>Mihail Rinopoulos (1932)</p><br>
<p>Athanasios N. Miaoulis (1932)</p><br>
<p>Sotiris Stratigis (1932–1938)</p><br>
<p>Michail Manoussos (1938–1941)</p><br>
<p>Georgios Andrianopoulos (1951–1966)</p><br>
<p>Georgios Kyriakakos (1966–1967)</p><br>
<p>Aristidis Skylitsis (1967–1974)</p><br>
<p>Vasilios Zeppos (1974–1975)</p><br>
<p>Anastasios Voulodimos (1975–1978)</p><br>
<p>Georgios Kyriakakos (1978–1982)</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Papaspyrou (1982–1986)</p><br>
<p>(1987–1990)</p><br>
<p>Stelios Logothetis (1991–1998)</p><br>
<p>Christos Agrapidis (1999–2006)</p><br>
<p>Panagiotis Fasoulas (2007–2010)</p><br>
<p>Vasilis Michaloliakos (2011–2014)</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Moralis (2014-</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Katina Paxinou, actress</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Pikionis, architect</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Papamichael, actor</p><br>
<p>Aimilios Veakis, actor</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Rontiris, actor and director</p><br>
<p>Yannis Tsarouchis, artist and painter</p><br>
<p>Thanassis Vengos, actor</p><br>
<p>Nicola Zaccaria, Greek bass</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Dalaras, singer</p><br>
<p>Costas Simitis, PM of Greece</p><br>
<p>Charilaos Vasilakos, Olympic medalist</p><br>
<p>Tolis Voskopoulos, singer</p><br>
<p>Pantelis Thalassinos, singer and songwriter</p><br>
<p>Jannis Kounellis, artist</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Diamantakos, football player</p><br>
<h2>Universities and institutes</h2><br>
<p>University of Piraeus, founded in 1938, operates four schools with more than 20,000 registered students.</p><br>
<p>Technological Education Institute of Piraeus</p><br>
<p>Mount Holyoke, a traprock mountain, elevation 935 ft, is the western-most peak of the Holyoke Range and part of the 100-mile  Metacomet Ridge. The mountain is located in the Connecticut River Valley of western Massachusetts, and is the namesake of nearby Mount Holyoke College. The mountain is located in the towns of Hadley and South Hadley, Massachusetts. It is known for its historic summit house, auto road, scenic vistas, and biodiversity. The mountain is crossed by the 110 mi Metacomet-Monadnock Trail and numerous shorter trails. Mount Holyoke is the home of J.A. Skinner State Park which is accessible from Route 47 in Hadley, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origin of name</h3><br>
<p>The mountain was named after Elizur Holyoke, an early resident of Springfield, Massachusetts and immigrant from Tamworth, England, who first explored the mountainous region that came to bear his name. The city of Holyoke, Massachusetts, the Holyoke Range, and the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (now Mount Holyoke College) were all named after this mountain, Mount Holyoke, and not directly after Elizur Holyoke.</p><br>
<h3>The Mount Holyoke Summit House</h3><br>
<p>In 1821, an 18 by guest cabin was built on Mount Holyoke by a local committee—one of the first New England summit houses. The property changed hands several times between 1821 and 1851 when it was bought and rebuilt as a two-story, eight-room hotel. Local entrepreneurs John and Frances French were the primary owners; between 1851 and 1900, the hotel and property were subject to a number of upgrades and related construction projects including a covered tramway to the summit of the mountain (first drawn by horse, then mechanized), a railroad from the base of the mountain to a steamboat dock on the Connecticut River, and the construction of a number of outbuildings and trails. With passenger steamship to the connecting summit railway established, the Mount Holyoke "Prospect House" became a popular tourist destination. The steamship would pick up guests at the Smiths Ferry railroad station across the Connecticut River in what was then Northampton, ferry them to a tramway leading to the Half Way House. From there guests could take a steep (600 feet long, rising 365 feet) covered inclined tram to the summit (shown in drawing at right). The track for this tram was first laid in 1867 and the system electrified in 1926. Competing establishments were soon built on Mount Tom and Mount Nonotuck across the Connecticut River, and on Sugarloaf Mountain and Mount Toby to the north. The Prospect House property passed hands again in the early 1900s, to chain hotelier Joseph Allen Skinner, who eventually donated the hotel and property to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for a state park in 1939 on the condition that the park be named after him (now the J.A. Skinner State Park).</p><br>
<p>The summit house&#39;s 1894 annex had suffered from storm damage during the Great Hurricane of 1938 and had been demolished; in 1942 the enclosed tramway to the summit house broke down. A heavy snow storm in 1948 collapsed sections of the roof. Despite proposals to repair the tram it never ran again. The tram was finally demolished in 1965. State funds for maintenance of the summit house during the 1950s and 1960s were never adequate and by the mid-1970s there were proposals to condemn and demolish the summit house. This led to a public outcry and in the mid-1980s the summit house, consisting of the original 1851 structure and the 1861 addition, was restored by the state and through the efforts of local volunteers.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and ecology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Holyoke, like much of the Metacomet Ridge, is composed of basalt, also called trap rock, a volcanic rock. The mountain formed near the end of the Triassic Period with the rifting apart of the North American continent from Africa and Eurasia. Lava welled up from the rift and solidified into sheets of strata hundreds of feet thick. Subsequent faulting and earthquake activity tilted the strata, creating the dramatic cliffs and ridges of Mount Holyoke. Hot, dry upper slopes, cool, moist ravines, and mineral-rich ledges of basalt talus produce a combination of microclimate ecosystems on the mountain that support plant and animal species uncommon in greater Massachusetts. (The Metacomet Ridge article has more information on the geology and ecosystem of Mount Holyoke).</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The summit automobile road is open from April through November, and the hiking trails year-round. The Summit House is open weekends and holidays from Memorial Day through Columbus Day. A number of hiking trails also cross the mountain, most notably the 110 mile (180k) Metacomet-Monadnock Trail and the 47 mi Robert Frost Trail.</p><br>
<p>Every year in early fall, since 1838, students from nearby Mount Holyoke College participate in Mountain Day. On that day, at the sound of ringing bells from Abbey Chapel on a random Autumn morning, all classes are cancelled and students hike to the summit of Mount Holyoke.</p><br>
<p>The area around the summit house has many picnic tables. Also, there are trailheads and memorials. One notable memorial is that to the men aboard a transport plane that crashed into the flank of the mountain. On May 27, 1944, a B-24, flying a night training mission out of Westover Air Force Base in Chicopee, Massachusetts, crashed into a cliff on the side of the range, killing all ten crewmen. A memorial plaque on the summit of Mount Holyoke eulogizes the disaster. The crash site itself is a half mile away toward the southwest.</p><br>
<p>The views from the top of the mountain are some of the best in Massachusetts. They have inspired artists and poets. The nearby Connecticut River Oxbow (now a lake), immortalized by the famous landscape painter Thomas Cole just four years before natural flooding and erosion separated it from the Connecticut River, was composed from sketches the artist made from the summit of Mount Holyoke in 1836. To the south are the cities of Holyoke, Springfield, and Hartford. To the north are the University of Massachusetts in Amherst and mountains in Sunderland. To the east is the Holyoke Range and the town of South Hadley. To the west are the foothills of the Berkshires, the Connecticut River, and Northampton.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>Most of Mount Holyoke is located within the Skinner State Park. The Mount Holyoke Range State Park is a sister park occupying the east side of the Holyoke Range. Its visitor center is located at "the Notch", where Route 116 crosses the range in Amherst.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, Mount Holyoke was included in a study by the National Park Service for the designation of a new National Scenic Trail now tentatively called the New England National Scenic Trail, which would include the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail in Massachusetts and the Mattabesett Trail and Metacomet Trail trails in Connecticut.</p><br>
<p>Saqqara , also spelled Sakkara or Saccara in English, is a vast, ancient burial ground in Egypt, serving as the necropolis for the Ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis. Saqqara features numerous pyramids, including the world-famous Step pyramid of Djoser, sometimes referred to as the Step Tomb due to its rectangular base, as well as a number of mastabas . Located some 30 km south of modern-day Cairo, Saqqara covers an area of around 7 by.</p><br>
<p>At Saqqara, the oldest complete stone building complex known in history was built: Djoser&#39;s step pyramid, built during the Third Dynasty. Another 16 Egyptian kings built pyramids at Saqqara, which are now in various states of preservation or dilapidation. High officials added private funeral monuments to this necropolis during the entire pharaonic period. It remained an important complex for non-royal burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into Ptolemaic and Roman times.</p><br>
<p>North of the area known as Saqqara lies Abusir; south lies Dahshur. The area running from Giza to Dahshur has been used as a necropolis by the inhabitants of Memphis at different times, and it has been designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979.</p><br>
<p>Some scholars believe that the name Saqqara is not derived from the ancient Egyptian funerary god Sokar, but from a supposed local Berber Tribe called Beni Saqqar.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early Dynastic</h3><br>
<p>The earliest burials of nobles can be traced back to the First Dynasty, at the north side of the Saqqara plateau. During this time, the royal burial ground was at Abydos. The first royal burials at Saqqara, comprising underground galleries, date to the Second Dynasty. The last Second Dynasty king Khasekhemwy was buried in his tomb at Abydos, but also built a funerary monument at Saqqara consisting of a large rectangular enclosure, known as Gisr el-Mudir. It probably inspired the monumental enclosure wall around the Step Pyramid complex. Djosers funerary complex, built by the royal architect Imhotep, further comprises a large number of dummy buildings and a secondary mastaba (the so-called Southern Tomb). French architect and Egyptologist Jean-Philippe Lauer spent the greater part of his life excavating and restoring Djosers funerary complex.</p><br>
<h4>Early Dynastic monuments</h4><br>
<p>tomb of king Hotepsekhemwy</p><br>
<p>tomb of king Nynetjer</p><br>
<p>Buried Pyramid, funerary complex of king Sekhemkhet</p><br>
<p>Gisr el-Mudir, funerary complex of king Khasekhemwy</p><br>
<p>Step Pyramid, funerary complex of king Djoser</p><br>
<h3>Old Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>Nearly all Fourth Dynasty kings chose to have a different location for their pyramids. During the second half of the Old Kingdom, under the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, Saqqara was again the royal burial ground. The Fifth and Sixth Dynasty pyramids are not built of massive stone, but with a core consisting of rubble. They are consequently less well preserved than the world-famous pyramids built by the Fourth Dynasty kings at Giza. Unas, the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, was the first king to adorn the chambers in his pyramid with Pyramid Texts. It was custom for courtiers during the Old Kingdom to be buried in mastaba tombs close to the pyramid of their king. Clusters of private tombs were thus formed in Saqqara around the pyramid complexes of Unas and Teti.</p><br>
<h4>Old Kingdom monuments</h4><br>
<p>Mastabet el-Fara&#39;un, tomb of king Shepseskaf (Dynasty 4)</p><br>
<p>Pyramid complex of king Userkaf (Dynasty 5)</p><br>
<p>Haram el-Shawaf, pyramid complex of king Djedkare</p><br>
<p>Pyramid of king Menkauhor</p><br>
<p>Mastaba of Ti</p><br>
<p>Mastaba of the Two Brothers (Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum)</p><br>
<p>Pyramid complex of king Unas</p><br>
<p>Mastaba of Ptahhotep</p><br>
<p>Pyramid complex of king Teti (Dynasty 6)</p><br>
<p>Mastaba of Mereruka</p><br>
<p>Mastaba of Kagemni</p><br>
<p>Mastaba of Akhethetep</p><br>
<p>Pyramid complex of king Pepi I</p><br>
<p>Pyramid complex of king Merenre</p><br>
<p>Pyramid complex of king Pepi II</p><br>
<p>Tomb of Perneb (now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York)</p><br>
<h4>First Intermediate Period monuments</h4><br>
<p>Pyramid of king Ibi (Dynasty 8)</p><br>
<h3>Middle Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>From the Middle Kingdom onwards, Memphis was no longer the capital of the country, and kings built their funerary complexes elsewhere. Few private monuments from this period have been found at Saqqara.</p><br>
<h4>Second Intermediate Period monuments</h4><br>
<p>Pyramid of king Khendjer (Dynasty 13)</p><br>
<p>Pyramid of an unknown king</p><br>
<h3>New Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>During the New Kingdom Memphis was an important administrative and military centre, being the capital after the Amaran Period. From the Eighteenth Dynasty onwards many high officials built tombs at Saqqara. When still a general, Horemheb built a large tomb here, though he was later buried as Pharaoh in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Other important tombs belong to the vizier Aperel, the vizier Neferrenpet, the artist Thutmose and to Maia, the wet-nurse of Tutankhamun.</p><br>
<p>Many monuments from earlier periods were still standing, but dilapidated by this period. Prince Khaemweset, son of Pharaoh Ramesses II, made repairs to buildings at Saqqara. Among other things, he restored the Pyramid of Unas and added an inscription to its south face to commemorate the restoration. He enlarged the Serapeum, the burial site of the mummified Apis bulls, and was later buried in the catacombs. The Serapeum, containing one undisturbed interment of an Apis bull and the tomb of Khaemweset, were rediscovered by the French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette in 1851.</p><br>
<h4>New Kingdom monuments</h4><br>
<p>Several clusters of tombs of high officials, among which the tombs of Horemheb and of Maya and Merit. Reliefs and statues from these two tombs are on display in the National Museum of Antiquities at Leiden, the Netherlands, and in the British Museum, London.</p><br>
<h3>After the New Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>In the periods after the New Kingdom, when several cities in the Delta served as capital of Egypt, Saqqara remained in use as a burial ground for nobles. Moreover, the area became an important destination for pilgrims to a number of cult centres. Activities sprang up around the Serapeum, and extensive underground galleries were cut into the rock as burial sites for large amounts of mummified ibises, baboons, cats, dogs, and falcons.</p><br>
<h4>Monuments of the Late Period, the Graeco-Roman and later periods</h4><br>
<p>Several shaft tombs of officials of the Late Period</p><br>
<p>Serapeum (the larger part dating to the Ptolemaeic Period)</p><br>
<p>The so-called Philosophers circle, a monument to important Greek thinkers and poets, consisting of statues of Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, Plato, and others (Ptolemaeic)</p><br>
<p>Several Coptic monasteries, among which the Monastery of Apa Jeremias (Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods)</p><br>
<h2>Site looting during 2011 protests</h2><br>
<p>Saqqara and the surrounding areas of Abusir and Dahshur suffered damage by looters during the 2011 Egyptian protests. Store rooms were broken into, but the monuments were mostly unharmed.</p><br>
<h2>Recent Discoveries</h2><br>
<p>During routine excavations in 2011 at the dog catacomb in Saqqara necropolis, an excavation team led by Salima Ikram, and an international team of researchers led by Paul Nicholson of Cardiff University, uncovered almost eight million animal mummies at the burial site. It is thought that the mummified animals, mostly dogs, were intended to pass on prayers of their owners to their Gods.</p><br>
<p>Wroxham Broad is an area of open water alongside the River Bure near the village of Wroxham in Norfolk, England within The Broads National Park. The Norfolk Broads were formed by the flooding of ancient peat workings. Wroxham Broad has an area of 34.4 hectares  and a mean depth of 1.3 metres. It lies to the west of the Bure, with two navigable openings between river and broad. The village and broad lie in an area of fairly intensive agriculture, with areas of wet woodland adjoining the broad and river.</p><br>
<p>Since 1937, under lease from the Trafford estate, the broad has been home to the Norfolk Broads Yacht Club. Visiting boats are not allowed to land, but navigation is allowed.</p><br>
<p>Between 2000 and 2005 the island between the two channels linking Wroxham Broad to the Bure underwent restoration to stop erosion and improve the island&#39;s ecology, which had become degraded. The project was a joint initiative involving the Broads Authority, Norfolk Broads Yacht Club and the local landowner, Trafford Estates. Scrub was cleared and a stretch of piling installed, allowing sedge, reed and rush to grow back. By 2005 it was reported that more birds, including kingfishers, were nesting on the island and the rare Cetti&#39;s warbler was often spotted. Greater numbers of ducks, including pochard and tufted ducks, now wintered nearby and there was a greater profusion of wild flowers and marsh flora including orchids. During the course of the work, in 2004, volunteers came across an unexploded Second World War hand grenade in the dredgings, which was exploded by an army bomb disposal team.</p><br>
<p>Close to Wroxham Broad stands the early 18th century Broad House, a Queen Anne style estate house and formerly the seat of the local land-owning Trafford family. In 2006, it became a well-regarded &#39;boutique&#39; hotel which closed in late 2010. There are proposals that it be reclassified as a single dwelling.</p><br>
<p>Alfred John Norman Chamberlin (1822-1883), and his wife Betsy, owned the Broad House property and most of the Wroxham Broad, before the Traffords acquired it after Alfred&#39;s death about 1885. People flocked to their property to watch the Wroxham Regatta. (See painting "Wroxham Regatta -1868" by Claude Nursey.) Alfred had inherited the 300 acre property about 1858 from his unmarried cousin, Elizabeth Foulsham (1774-1857). She had inherited it from her unmarried half-brother, William Buckle (1765-1840) who had inherited it from his maternal grandfather, John Howse (d. 1817). Howse&#39;s forebears had owned the property since 1735. Prior owners have been recorded back to 1593.</p><br>
<p>There is a locomotive at the Bure Valley Railway in Norfolk which is named after Wroxham Broad.</p><br>
<h2>In literature</h2><br>
<p>The Broad features in Coot Club and The Big Six, two books by Arthur Ransome set in the Norfolk Broads.</p><br>
<p>Breydon Water is a large stretch of sheltered estuary at Great Yarmouth in the English county of Norfolk. It is at the gateway to The Broads river system on the eastern edge of Halvergate Marshes. It is the UK&#39;s largest protected wetland. It is 5 km long and more than 1.5 km wide in places.</p><br>
<p>Breydon Water is overlooked at the southern end by the remains of the Roman fort at Burgh Castle. Centuries ago, Breydon Water would have been one large estuary facing the sea. At the western end the water may be considered to start at the confluence of the River Yare and River Waveney; smaller sources including The Fleet flow in from the surrounding marshland. Safe passage for boats is indicated by red and green marker posts. Unlike most of the navigable waterways in the Norfolk Broads, Breydon Water is not subject to a speed limit.</p><br>
<p>At the east end of Breydon Water the river returns to a narrow channel, passing under Breydon Bridge after which it is joined by the River Bure then under Haven Bridge from where it is 4.4 km through the harbour into the North Sea.</p><br>
<p>Breydon Water is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Local Nature Reserve.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>At low tide there are vast areas of mudflats and saltings, all teeming with birds. Since the mid-80s, Breydon Water has been a nature reserve in the care of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). It has been a popular shooting area for centuries, and the shooting continues, but on a very much reduced scale.</p><br>
<p>In terms of nature conservation, Breydon Water is one of the most important estuaries on the east coast of England between The Wash and the Thames estuary. It has specially protected status by virtue of being a European Union Special Protection Area (SPA).</p><br>
<p>In the winter, large numbers of wading birds and wildfowl use it to overwinter, including 12,000 golden plovers, 12,000 wigeons, 32,000 lapwings and tens of thousands of Bewick&#39;s swans. Other species that have been noted there include dunlin, sanderling, whimbrel, several (escaped) flamingos, avocets and on one occasion a glossy ibis.</p><br>
<p>There is a bird observation hide at the east end of Breydon Water, on the north shore, looking out towards a breeding platform used mainly by common terns. Other breeding species include shelduck, shovelers, oystercatchers and yellow wagtails.</p><br>
<p>The naturalist Arthur Henry Patterson A.L.S. (1857–1935), who published under the pseudonym John Knowlittle, extensively documented the wildlife of Breydon and the disappearing lifestyles of those boatmen, wildfowlers and fishermen who made a living from the estuary. Extracts from his numerous works are available in Scribblings of a Yarmouth Naturalist by Beryl Tooley, his great-granddaughter ( published 2004.)</p><br>
<p>The Wherrymans Way and Weavers Way long distance paths follow the northern bank of the estuary from Yarmouth to Berney Arms, a distance of about 5 miles. Breydon Water is the site of events in the popular Swallows and Amazons series book, Coot Club.</p><br>
<p>Annapurna  is a massif in the Himalayas in north-central Nepal that includes one peak over 8,000 m, thirteen peaks over 7,000 m, and sixteen more over 6,000 m. The massif is 55 km long, and is bounded by the Kali Gandaki Gorge on the west, the Marshyangdi River on the north and east, and by Pokhara Valley on the south. At the western end the massif encloses a high basin called the Annapurna Sanctuary. Annapurna I Main is the tenth highest mountain in the world at 8,091 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The entire massif and surrounding area are protected within the 7,629 km&sup2; Annapurna Conservation Area, the first and largest conservation area in Nepal. The Annapurna Conservation Area is home to several world-class treks, including the Annapurna Circuit.</p><br>
<p>Historically, the Annapurna peaks are among the worlds most dangerous mountains to climb, although in more recent history, using only figures from 1990 and after, Kangchenjunga has a higher fatality rate. By March 2012, there had been 191 summit ascents of Annapurna I Main, and 61 climbing fatalities on the mountain. This fatality-to-summit ratio (32%) is the highest of any of the eight-thousanders. In particular, the ascent via the south face is considered, by some, the most difficult of all climbs. In October 2014, at least 43 people were killed as a result of snowstorms and avalanches on and around Annapurna, in Nepals worst ever trekking disaster.</p><br>
<p>Annapurna is a Sanskrit name (fem.) that literally means "(She who is) Replete with food", but is normally translated as Goddess of the Harvests. According to Devdutt Pattanaik, Annapoorna devi is "... the universal and timeless kitchen-goddess... the mother who feeds. Without her there is starvation, a universal fear: This makes Annapurna a universal goddess... Her most popular shrine is located in Varanasi, on the banks of the Ganges River." Her association with the giving of food (wealth) led her in time to be transformed into Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Annapurna massif contains six prominent peaks over 7,200 m elevation:</p><br>
<p>Less prominent and other peaks in the Annapurna Himal include:</p><br>
<p>Annapurna I Central 8,051 m</p><br>
<p>Annapurna I East 8,010 m</p><br>
<p>Annapurna Fang 7,647 m</p><br>
<p>Lachenal Peak 7,140 m</p><br>
<p>Nilgiri Himal North 7,061 m, Central 6,940 m and South 6,839 m</p><br>
<p>Machhapuchchhre 6,993 m</p><br>
<p>Hiunchuli 6,441 m</p><br>
<h2>Climbing expeditions</h2><br>
<h3>Annapurna I</h3><br>
<p>Annapurna I was the first 8,000 m peak to be climbed. Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal, of a French expedition led by Herzog (including Lionel Terray, Gaston Rébuffat, Marcel Ichac, Jean Couzy, Marcel Schatz, Jacques Oudot, Francis de Noyelle), reached the summit on 3 June 1950. Ichac made a documentary of the expedition, called Victoire sur l&#39;Annapurna. Its summit was the highest summit attained for three years, until the first successful ascent of Mount Everest. (However, higher non-summit points—at least 8,500 m—had already been attained on Everest in the 1920s.) However, there is an argument that the 1920s attempt of Everest was successful and if this is true the Annapurna ascent would have been the first time people had survived an ascent of an eight-thousander.</p><br>
<p>The south face of Annapurna was first climbed in 1970 by Don Whillans and Dougal Haston using supplementary oxygen, members of a British expedition led by Chris Bonington that included the alpinist Ian Clough, who was killed by a falling serac during the descent. They were, however, beaten to the second ascent of Annapurna by a matter of days by a British Army expedition led by Colonel Henry Day.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, the American Women&#39;s Himalayan Expedition, a team led by Arlene Blum, became the first United States team to climb Annapurna I. The first summit team, composed of Vera Komarkova and Irene Miller, and Sherpas Mingma Tsering and Chewang Ringjing, reached the top at 3:30 pm on October 15, 1978. The second summit team, Alison Chadwick-Onyszkiewicz and Vera Watson, died during this climb.</p><br>
<p>In 1981 Polish expedition Zakopane Alpine Club set a new route on Annapurna I Central (8051 m). Maciej Berbeka and Bogusław Probulski reached the summit on May 23, 1981. The route called Zakopiańczyków Way was recognized as the best achievement of the Himalayan season in 1981.</p><br>
<p>On 3 February 1987, Polish climbers Jerzy Kukuczka and Artur Hajzer made the first winter ascent of Annapurna I.</p><br>
<p>The first solo ascent of the south face was made in October 2007 by Slovenian climber Tomaž Humar; he climbed to the Roc Noir and then to Annapurna East (8,047m).</p><br>
<p>On 8 and 9 October 2013 Swiss climber Ueli Steck soloed the Lafaille route on the main and highest part of the face; this was his third attempt on the route and has been called "one of the most impressive Himalayan climbs in history", with Steck taking 28 hours to make the trip from Base Camp to summit and back again.</p><br>
<h4>Fatality rate</h4><br>
<p>Annapurna I has the greatest fatality rate of all the 14 eight-thousanders: as of March 2012, there have been 52 deaths during ascents, 191 successful ascents, and nine deaths upon descent. The ratio of 34 deaths per 100 safe returns on Annapurna I is followed by 29 for K2 and 21 for Nanga Parbat. Climbers killed on the peak include Britons Ian Clough in 1970 and Alex MacIntyre in 1982, Frenchman Pierre Béghin in 1992, Russian Kazakh Anatoli Boukreev in 1997, Spaniard Iñaki Ochoa in 2008, and Korean Park Young-seok, lost in 2011.</p><br>
<h3>The other peaks</h3><br>
<p>Gangapurna was first climbed in 1965 by a German expedition led by Günther Hauser, via the East Ridge. The summit party comprised 11 members of the expedition.</p><br>
<p>Annapurna South (also known as Annapurna Dakshin, or Moditse) was first climbed in 1964 by a Japanese expedition, via the North Ridge. The summit party comprised S. Uyeo and Mingma Tsering.</p><br>
<p>Hiunchuli (6,441 m/21,126 ft) is a satellite peak extending east from Annapurna South, Hiunchuli was first climbed in 1971 by an expedition led by USA Peace Corps Volunteer Craig Anderson.</p><br>
<p>Mount Machhapuchchhre (6,993 m), named after its resemblance to a fish-tail, is another important peak, though it just misses the 7,000 metre mark. Mount Machhapuchchhre and Hiunchuli are prominently visible from the valley of Pokhara. These peaks are the "gates" to the Annapurna Sanctuary leading to the south face of Annapurna I. Mount Machhapuchchhre was climbed in 1957 (except the final 50 metres for its local religious sanctity) by Wilfrid Noyce and A. D. M. Cox. Since then it has been off limits.</p><br>
<h2>Trekking</h2><br>
<p>The Annapurna Conservation Area (7,629 km²) is a well known trekking region. There are three major trekking routes in the Annapurna region: the Jomson Trek to Jomsom and Muktinath (increasingly disturbed by a road-building project); the Annapurna Sanctuary route to Annapurna base camp; and the Annapurna Circuit, which circles the Annapurna Himal itself and includes the Jomsom route. The town of Pokhara usually serves as a starting point for these treks, and is also a good starting place for other short treks of one to four days, such as routes to Ghorepani or Ghandruk.</p><br>
<p>The Mustang district, a former kingdom bordering Tibet, is also geographically a part of the Annapurna region, but treks to upper Mustang are subject to special restrictions. Mustang is also increasingly becoming popular for mountain biking because of the construction of roads undertaken by the Nepali government in the region.</p><br>
<p>About two-thirds of all trekkers in Nepal visit the Annapurna region. The area is easily accessible, guest houses in the hills are plentiful, and treks here offer incredibly diverse scenery, with both high mountains and lowland villages. Also, because the entire area is inhabited, trekking in the region offers unique cultural exposure and experience.</p><br>
<h3>2014 trekking disaster</h3><br>
<p>In October 2014, at least 43 people were killed, and some 175 injured, as a result of snowstorms and avalanches on and around Annapurna, including trekkers from Nepal, Israel, Canada, India, Slovakia and Poland. Between 10 and 50 people were thought likely to be missing. It was believed that about 100 trekkers had left a guest house at 4,800 m, to climb to the top of Thorong La pass and then descend.</p><br>
<p>The authorities were criticized for not giving sufficient warning of the approaching bad weather.</p><br>
<p>Millet fields in Annapurna.pngMillet fields in the Annapurna region play a major part in local agriculture.</p><br>
<p>Marsyangdi valley landscape.jpgMarsyangdi Valley</p><br>
<p>SoHo, sometimes written Soho, is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City, which in recent history came to the publics attention for being the location of many artists lofts and art galleries, but is now better known for its variety of shops ranging from trendy upscale boutiques to national and international chain store outlets. The area&#39;s history is an archetypal example of inner-city regeneration and gentrification, encompassing socioeconomic, cultural, political, and architectural developments.</p><br>
<p>The name "SoHo" refers to the area being "South of Houston Street", and was also a reference to Soho, an area in London&#39;s West End. It was coined by Chester Rapkin, an urban planner and author of The South Houston Industrial Area study, also known as the "Rapkin Report". This began a naming convention that became a model for the names of emerging and re-purposed neighborhoods in New York such as TriBeCa for "Triangle Below Canal Street", DUMBO ("Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass"), NoHo ("North of Houston Street"), NoLIta ("North of Little Italy") and NoMad ("North of Madison Square"), among others.</p><br>
<p>Almost all of SoHo is included in the SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District, which was designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1973, extended in 2010, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978. It consists of 26 blocks and approximately 500 buildings, many of them incorporating cast-iron architectural elements. Many side streets in the district are paved with Belgian blocks.</p><br>
<p>SoHo is part of Manhattan Community Board 2.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Boundaries</h3><br>
<p>Because of the nature of neighborhoods in New York City, different sources will often give different boundaries for each one. In the case of SoHo, all sources appear to agree that the northern boundary is Houston Street, and the southern boundary is Canal Street, but the location of the eastern and western boundaries is disputed.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, shortly after SoHo first came into existence, The New York Times described the boundaries as "stretching from Houston to Canal Streets between West Broadway and Lafayette Street" &ndash; a definition it continued to hold to in 2016 &ndash; but The Encyclopedia of New York City reports that SoHo is bounded by Crosby Street on the east, and Sixth Avenue to the west. These are the same boundaries shown by Google Maps. However, the AIA Guide to New York City gives the western boundary of SoHo north of Broome Street as being West Broadway, and New York magazine gives the eastern boundary as Lafayette Street and the western boundary as the Hudson River. The very small-scale map at the Community Board 2 profile page on New York City&#39;s official website appears to show Sixth Avenue and Lafayette Street as the western and eastern boundaries.</p><br>
<p>Summing up these sources, the western boundary of SoHo may be the Hudson River, Sixth Avenue or West Broadway, and the eastern boundary may be Crosby Street or Lafayette Street.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, real estate agents began giving an adjacent neighborhood below West Houston Street various appellations, with no general agreement on whether it should be called West SoHo, Hudson Square or the South Village. The AIA Guide calls that neighborhood "An intersection of brick and glass, searching for an identity," and refers to the western section of it as "The Glass Box District".</p><br>
<h3>Historic District</h3><br>
<p>The SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District is contained within the zoned SoHo neighborhood. Originally ending in the west at the eastern side of West Broadway and to the east at the western side of Crosby Street, the SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District was expanded in 2010 to cover most of West Broadway and to extend east to Lafayette and Centre Streets. The boundary lines are not straight, and some block-fronts on West Broadway and Lafayette are excluded from the District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>During the colonial period, the land that is now SoHo was part of a grant of farmland given to freed slaves of the Dutch West Indies Company, and the site of the first free Black settlement on Manhattan island. This land was acquired in the 1660s by Augustine Hermann, and then passed to his brother-in-law, Nicholas Bayard.</p><br>
<p>In the 18th century natural barriers – streams and hills – impeded the growth of the city northward into the Bayard estate, and the area maintained its rural character. During the American Revolution, the area was the location of numerous fortifications, redoubts and breastworks. After the war, Bayard, who had suffered financially because of it, was forced to mortgage some of the property, which was divided up into lots, but even then there was very little development in the area, aside from some manufacturing at Broadway and Canal Street.</p><br>
<p>Serious development of the area did not begin until the Common Council, answering the complaints of landowners in the area, drained the Collect Pond, which had once been an important source of fresh water for the island, but which had become polluted and rank and a breeding ground for mosquitoes. A canal was built to drain the pond into the Hudson, and the canal and pond were both later filled in using earth from nearby Bayard&#39;s Hill. Once Broadway was paved and sidewalks were built there and along Canal Street, more people began to make their homes there, joining earlier arrivals such as James Fennimore Cooper.</p><br>
<h3>Commerce, entertainment, and decline</h3><br>
<p>By the mid-19th century, the early Federal- and Greek Revival-style homes were replaced by more-solid structures of masonry and cast iron, and along Broadway, large marble-skinned commercial establishments began to open, such as Lord & Taylor, Arnold Constable & Company and Tiffany & Company, as well as grand hotels such as the St. Nicholas and the Metropolitan. Theatres followed in their wake, and Broadway between Canal and Houston Streets became a lively theater and shopping district and the entertainment center of New York; and the side streets off of Broadway became the city&#39;s red-light district.</p><br>
<p>This dramatic shift in the nature of the neighborhood continued to drive out residents, and between 1860 and 1865 the Eighth Ward, which included the SoHo area, lost 25% of its population.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, the textile industry largely moved to the South, leaving many large buildings in the district unoccupied. In some buildings they were replaced by warehouses and printing plants, and other buildings were torn down to be replaced by gas stations, auto repair shops and parking lots and garages. By the 1950s, the area had become known as Hell&#39;s Hundred Acres, an industrial wasteland, full of sweatshops and small factories in the daytime, but empty at night. It would not be until the 1960s, when artists began to be interested in the tall ceilings and many windows of the empty manufacturing lofts, that the character of the neighborhood began to change again.</p><br>
<h3>Cast-iron architecture</h3><br>
<p>SoHo boasts the greatest collection of cast-iron architecture in the world. Approximately 250 cast-iron buildings stand in New York City and the majority of them are in SoHo. Cast iron was initially used as a decorative front over a pre-existing building. With the addition of modern, decorative facades, older industrial buildings were able to attract new commercial clients. Most of these facades were constructed during the period from 1840 to 1880. In addition to revitalizing older structures, buildings in SoHo were later designed to feature the cast iron.</p><br>
<p>An American architectural innovation, cast iron was cheaper to use for facades than materials such as stone or brick. Molds of ornamentation, prefabricated in foundries, were used interchangeably for many buildings, and a broken piece could be easily recast. The buildings could be erected quickly; some were built in four months. Despite the brief construction period, the quality of the cast-iron designs was not sacrificed. Bronze had previously been the metal most frequently used for architectural detail. Architects found that the relatively inexpensive cast iron could provide intricately designed patterns. Classical French and Italian architectural designs were often used as models for these facades. Because stone was the material associated with architectural masterpieces, cast iron, painted in neutral tints such as beige, was used to simulate stone.</p><br>
<p>There was a profusion of cast iron foundries in New York, including Badgers Architectural Iron Works, James L. Jacksons Iron Works, and Cornell Iron Works.</p><br>
<p>Since the iron was pliable and easily molded, sumptuously curved window frames were created, and the strength of the metal allowed these frames considerable height. The once-somber, gas-lit interiors of the industrial district were flooded with sunlight through the enlarged windows. The strength of cast iron permitted high ceilings with sleek supporting columns, and interiors became expansive and functional.</p><br>
<p>During cast iron&#39;s heyday, many architects thought it to be structurally more sound than steel. It was also thought that cast iron would be fire-resistant, and facades were constructed over many interiors built of wood and other flammable materials. When exposed to heat, cast iron buckled, and later cracked under the cold water used to extinguish fire. In 1899, a building code mandating the backing of cast-iron fronts with masonry was passed. Most of the buildings that stand today are constructed in this way. It was the advent of steel as a major construction material that brought an end to the cast iron era.</p><br>
<h3>Lower Manhattan Expressway</h3><br>
<p>In the 1960s, the SoHo area was to have been the location of two enormous elevated highways that comprised the two branches of the Lower Manhattan Expressway, a Robert Moses project that was intended to create an automobile and truck through-route connecting the Manhattan Bridge and Williamsburg Bridge on the east with the Holland Tunnel on the west.</p><br>
<p>The young historic preservation movement and architectural critics, stung by the destruction of the original Pennsylvania Station in 1963 and the threat to other historic structures, challenged the plans because of the threatened loss of a huge quantity of 19th-century cast-iron buildings.</p><br>
<p>When John V. Lindsay became mayor of New York City in 1966, his initial reaction was to try to push the expressways through, dubbing the project the Lower Manhattan Expressway, depressing some of the proposed highway in residential areas and stressing the importance of the artery to the city. Nevertheless, through the efforts of Jane Jacobs, Tony D&#39;Apolito, Margot Gayle, and other local, civic, and cultural leaders, as well as SoHo artist residents themselves, the project was derailed.</p><br>
<h3>Artists move in</h3><br>
<p>After the abandonment of the highway scheme, the city was left with a large number of historic buildings that were unattractive for the kinds of manufacturing and commerce that survived in the city in the 1970s. The upper floors of many of these buildings had been built as commercial Manhattan lofts, which provided large, unobstructed spaces for manufacturing and other industrial uses. These spaces attracted artists who valued them for their large areas, large windows admitting natural light and low rents. Most of these spaces were also used illegally as living space, despite being neither zoned nor equipped for residential use. This widespread zoning violation was ignored for a long period of time, as the artist-occupants were using space for which there was little demand due to the city&#39;s poor economy at the time, and would have lain dormant or been abandoned otherwise.</p><br>
<p>Nevertheless, as the artist population grew, the city made some attempts to stem the movement, concerned about the occupation of space that did not meet residential building codes, and the possibility that the occupied space might be needed for the return of manufacturing to New York City. Pressured on many sides, the city abandoned attempts to keep the district as strictly industrial space, and in 1971, the Zoning Resolution was amended to permit Joint Live-Work Quarters for artists, and the M1-5a and M-5b districting was established to permit visual artists, certified as such by the Department of Cultural Affairs, to live where they worked. In 1987, non-artists residing in SoHo and NoHo were permitted to grandfather themselves, but that was the only extension to non-artists and was a one-time agreement.</p><br>
<p>The area received landmark designation as the SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in 1973.</p><br>
<h3>Gentrification and shopping</h3><br>
<p>In 2005, the construction of residential buildings on empty lots in the historic district was permitted. Nevertheless, with no enforcement of the new zoning laws by the city, beginning in the 1980s, in a way that would later apply elsewhere, the neighborhood began to draw more affluent residents. Due to rent protection and stability afforded by the 1982 Loft Law, in addition to the fact that many of the artists owned their co-ops, many of the original pioneering artists remained despite the popular misconception that gentrification forced them to flee. Many residents have lived in the neighborhood for decades. In the mid-1990s, most of the galleries moved to Chelsea, but several galleries remain as of 2013, including William Bennett Gallery, Martin Lawrence Galleries, Terrain Gallery, Franklin Bowles Gallery, and Pop International Gallery.</p><br>
<p>SoHo&#39;s location, the appeal of lofts as living spaces, its architecture, and its reputation as a haven for artists all contributed to this change. The pattern of gentrification is typically known as the "SoHo Effect" and has been observed elsewhere in the United States. A backwater of poor artists and small factories in the 1970s, SoHo became a popular tourist destination for people seeking fashionable clothing and exquisite architecture, and home to some of the most expensive real estate in the country.</p><br>
<p>SoHo&#39;s chain outlets are clustered in the northern area of the neighborhood, along Broadway and Prince and Spring Streets. The sidewalks in this area are often crowded with tourists and with vendors selling jewelry, T-shirts, and other works. SoHo is known for its commercialization and eclectic mix of boutiques for shopping. Although in 2010, it had twice as many chain stores as boutiques and three times as many boutiques as art galleries.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>SoHo can be reached by the New York City Subway, using the to Spring Street; to Houston Street; the to Prince Street; and the to Spring Street. The crosstown on Houston Street and the north-south bus routes also serve the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>The Montessori School in Soho (75 Sullivan Street)</p><br>
<p>There are no New York City Department of Education schools located within SoHo, although there are several just outside its borders, including:</p><br>
<p>Broome Street Academy Charter School (M522, 121 Avenue of the Americas)</p><br>
<p>Chelsea Career and Technical Education High School (M615, 131 Avenue of the Americas)</p><br>
<p>NYC Ischool (M376, 131 Avenue of the Americas)</p><br>
<p>P.S. 130 Hernando de Soto School (M130, 143 Baxter Street)</p><br>
<p>Unity Center for Urban Technologies (M500, 121 Avenue of the Americas)</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>About 13,310 people live in SoHo as of the 2010 United States Census.</p><br>
<p>The Kent Group are a grouping of six granite islands located in Bass Strait, north-west of the Furneaux Group in Tasmania, Australia. Collectively, the group is comprised within the Kent Group National Park.</p><br>
<p>The islands were named Kent&#39;s Group by Matthew Flinders, "in honour of my friend captain William Kent, then commander of Supply" when Flinders passed them on 8 February 1798 in Francis (on her way to salvage Sydney Cove)., entry for 8 February 1798 The largest island in the group is Deal Island; the others, in order of descending size, are Erith Island, Dover Island, North East Isle, South West Isle and Judgement Rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Shipwrecks</h2><br>
<p>Murray Pass, named for the explorer John Murray, between Deal and Erith Islands has long been used by ships to shelter from gales in Bass Strait, but it is a dangerous, partly open, roadstead, and many ships have been wrecked after sudden changes in wind direction and speed. Others have hit the island either while attempting to shelter or through poor navigation in darkness or bad weather, several with heavy loss of life. They include:</p><br>
<p>1816, Brothers, schooner, 40 tons, Captain William Hovell, one life lost.</p><br>
<p>1819, Daphne, brig, 151 tons, Captain John Howard, no lives lost.</p><br>
<p>1819, John Palmer, schooner, 37 tons, Captain Bastian, two lives lost (one ex Daphne)</p><br>
<p>1831, Ionia, snow, 226 tons, Captain Buck. ?Three lives lost.</p><br>
<p>1850, Ida, schooner, 50 tons, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1851, White Squall, schooner, 104 tons, Captain Chattock, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1852, Dorset, brig, 82 tons, Captain Birdwood, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1852, Mary, brig, 308 tons, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1855, Elizabeth Mason, schooner, 79 tons, Captain McIntyre, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1856, Kendall, schooner, 157 tons, Captain Read, no lives lost.</p><br>
<p>1862, Reindeer, schooner, 104 tons, Captain Morris, all hands (about 8) lost.</p><br>
<p>1863, General Jessup, barque, 193 tons, Captain Hodge, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1866, Boscarne, schooner, 63 tons, Captain Black, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1875, Essie Black, barque, 281 tons, Captain Sivier, all hands (about 10) lost.</p><br>
<p>1877, Bulli, iron steamship, 524 tons, Captain Randell, no loss of life (a popular dive wreck).</p><br>
<p>1921, Karitane, steel steamship, 1376 tons, Captain Spain, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>1930, Ida N, new fishing boat, 25 tons, Captain Busk, no lives lost.</p><br>
<p>1961, St Nicholas, newly completed fish carrier, 45 tons, no loss of life.</p><br>
<p>The Lac de Guiers or Lake Guiers is a lake in northern Senegal, south of the city of Richard-Toll and in the Louga and Saint-Louis regions. It is a chief source of fresh water for the city of Dakar, hundreds of kilometers to the south-west, through underground pipes.</p><br>
<p>It is about 35 kilometers long and 8 kilometers wide, and is supplied by the Ferlo or Bounoum River, which flows north into its southern end, from Fouta in the rainy season. Water used to flow out to the Senegal River north through the Portuguese River, but this has been replaced by a straight canal to Richard-Toll. A dam was built in 1916 to prevent saltwater flowing in from Taoué River and the Senegal River delta.</p><br>
<p>The shores are mostly fertile. The north shore and surrounding area have been converted to a large sugar-growing region irrigated with water from the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lac de Guiers is designated an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International; the key species are lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor), glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), African spoonbill (Platalea alba), white-winged tern (Chlidonias leucopterus) and river prinia (Prinia fluviatilis).</p><br>
<p>The lake has a complicated history involving the kingdoms of Tekrur and Waalo and the Empire of Jolof (Diolof). Notably, the settlement of Nder, the third and final capital of the former Kingdom of Waalo, was located on the west shores of the Lake. The royal compound or "keur" is still there. Previously Lac de Guiers was called Lac du Panier Foule or Pania Fuli, referring to the Fula people.</p><br>
<p>The River Bure is a river in the county of Norfolk, England, most of it in the Broads. The Bure rises near Melton Constable, 11 miles upstream of Aylsham, which was the original head of navigation. Nowadays, the head of navigation is 10 mi downstream at Coltishall Bridge.</p><br>
<p>After Aylsham Lock and Burgh Bridge, the Bure passes through Buxton Lammas, Coltishall, Belaugh, Wroxham, Horning, Ludham Bridge, past St. Benet&#39;s Abbey, through Oby, Acle, Stokesby, along the northern border of the Halvergate Marshes, through Runham and Great Yarmouth where it meets Breydon Water and flows into the sea at Gorleston.</p><br>
<p>It has two major tributaries, the River Thurne and the River Ant. There is also Muck Fleet which connects the Trinity Broads (Ormesby, Rollesby and Filby Broad) to the main network.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The River Bure has been navigable for some 31 mi as far as Horstead Mill, near Coltishall, since at least 1685, when cargoes of coal, corn and timber were carried to within 1 mi of Meyton Manor House. It was stated at the time that the river could be improved to enable boats to reach the house. Vessels could not travel beyond Coltishall, and so Aylsham was served by carts, either loaded from wherries at Coltishall and carried north, or loaded from boats at Cromer and carried south.</p><br>
<p>Plans to extend the limit of navigation were drawn up in 1773. An Act of Parliament was obtained on 7 April 1773, authorising improvements from Coltishall to Aylsham, which John Adey estimated would cost £6,000. Some £1,500 had already been raised or promised, and the balance was to be funded by subscriptions. Adey acted as clerk to the Bure Commissioners, while John Smith was appointed as engineer. Work began on 29 June 1774, and the lock and cut at Coltishall were completed by 16 March 1775, when the first boat used the lock. Progress after that was slow, for in October 1777 Smith announced that he had spent £3,600 so far, but estimated that a further £2,951 would be required to complete the work. It appears that the money had run out, but Smith was persuaded to carry on after 18 traders and landowners provided loans of between £50 and £150. John Green of Wroxham was appointed as joint engineer in March 1779, and the new waterway finally opened in October 1779.</p><br>
<p>Five locks were provided, at Aylsham, Burgh-near-Aylsham Mill, Oxnead Mill, Buxton Mill at Oxnead Lamas and Coltishall. Within a month, the Commissioners found that silting of the river bed had occurred, reducing the navigable depth, and dredging of the river bed using a scoop, known locally as a didle, was a regular activity. Small wherries, capable of carrying 13 tons, were used for the carriage of flour, agricultural produce, coal and timber. A brickyard at Oxnead was also served by the boats, while below Coltishall, marl was carried away from pits which were served by a system of navigable dikes on the estate of Horstead Hall. The marl trade continued until 1870, but the dikes remain, in an area called Little Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>At each of the mills, cuts were made to accommodate the locks, but at Aylsham a longer cut of about 1 mi was made, ending at a basin where warehouses were constructed. Boats could also get from there to Aylsham Mill Pool, which enabled them to deliver grain and carry flour away. The navigation was reasonably successful until 1880, when railway competition arrived, in the form of the East Norfolk Railway, which followed the Bure valley. The East Norfolk later became part of the Great Eastern Railway. Further competition arrived in 1883, when the Eastern and Midlands Railway opened a railway station near the terminal basin on its line from Melton Constable to North Walsham. Despite this, wherries were using the navigation until 1912, when a disastrous flood damaged the locks. Assessment of the damage suggested that repairs would cost £4,000, which the Commissioners could not find, and so the navigation was abandoned. This act was formalised in 1928, when it was officially abandoned. Oxnead Lamas Lock was filled in, in 1933, but the other structures remain, although the lock gates have been replaced by sluices.</p><br>
<p>Possession Island is a small island in the Torres Strait Islands group off the coast of far northern Queensland, Australia. It is known as Bedanug or Bedhan Lag by the indigenous Australian inhabitants, the Kaurareg people.</p><br>
<p>Possession Island is located at the centre of the Possession Island National Park, an area of 5.10 km² established as a Protected Area in 1977 and managed by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During his first voyage of discovery, British explorer, then Lieutenant James Cook sailed northwards along the east coast of Australia, landing at Botany Bay. Reaching the tip of Queensland, he named and landed on Possession Island, just before sunset on 22 August 1770, and declared the coast British territory in the name of King George III. Cook wrote in his journal: "I now once more hoisted English Coulers and in the Name of His Majesty King George the Third took possession of the whole Eastern Coast...by the name New South Wales, together with all the Bays, Harbours Rivers and Islands situate upon the said coast."</p><br>
<p>In 2001 the Kaurareg people successfully claimed native title rights over the island (and other nearby islands).</p><br>
<p>The Elbe–Lübeck Canal  is an artificial waterway in eastern Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It connects the rivers Elbe and Trave, creating an inland water route across the drainage divide from the North Sea to the Baltic Sea. The canal includes seven locks and runs for a length of 64 km between the cities of Lübeck in the north and Lauenburg in the south by way of the Mölln lakes. The modern canal was built in the 1890s to replace the Stecknitz Canal, a medieval watercourse linking the same two rivers.</p><br>
<h2>Preceding canal</h2><br>
<p>The older Stecknitz Canal had first connected Lauenburg and Lübeck on the Old Salt Route by linking the tiny rivers Stecknitz (a tributary of the Trave) and Delvenau (a tributary of the Elbe). Built between 1391 and 1398, the Stecknitz Canal was the first European summit-level canal and one of the earliest artificial waterways in Europe.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After German unification in the late nineteenth century, there was a burst of canal-building within the new German Empire. The Stecknitz Canal had been in service for centuries, but newer vessels demanded deeper and wider canals, and modern engineering offered the possibility of rebuilding and enlarging the venerable waterway. In 1893 the German government closed the Stecknitz Canal to barge traffic, and in 1895 construction began on a widened and straightened waterway which includes some of the old canal&#39;s watercourse. The new Elbe–Lübeck Canal was inaugurated by German Emperor Wilhelm II and opened to shipping traffic in 1900. Today it continues to carry substantial freight traffic, as well as offering a scenic route for pleasure craft.</p><br>
<h2>Technology</h2><br>
<p>The canal passes through two locks ascending from the Elbe to the canal&#39;s highest point and five locks descending from the high point to the Trave. Each lock was built with an interior length of 80 m and an interior width of 12 m.</p><br>
<p>The river Ticino  is the most important perennial left-bank tributary of the Po. It has given its name to the Swiss canton through which its upper portion flows.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The river rises in the Val Bedretto in Switzerland at the frontier between the cantons of Valais and Ticino, is fed by the glaciers of the Alps and later flows through Lake Maggiore, before entering Italy. The Ticino joins the Po a few kilometres downstream (along the Ticino) from Pavia. It is about 248 km long. The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Grenzgipfel (a subpeak of Monte Rosa), at 4,618 m. Beneath it flows the Anza River, a right-bank tributary of the Ticino.</p><br>
<p>The river is dammed in Switzerland in order to create hydroelectricity, while in Italy it is primarily used for irrigation.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The legendary Gallic leader Bellovesus was said to have defeated the Etruscans here in circa 600 BC. Ticino was the location of the Battle of Ticinus, the first battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio in November 218 BC.</p><br>
<p>The Ticino was in the territory of the Duchy of Milan during much of the later medieval and early modern period, although its upper portion as far as Bellinzona in 1500 and as far as the shores of Lago Maggiore in 1513, fell to the Swiss as a result of their campaigns in the Italian Wars.</p><br>
<h2>Towns and tributaries</h2><br>
<h3>Val Bedretto</h3><br>
<p>Val Bedretto, a narrow alpine valley named after the village of Bedretto, culminates in Nufenen Pass, Italian Passo della Novena, at 2,478 m located between Pizzo Gallina and Nufenstock. Through it runs the border between the cantons of Valais and Ticino. A road constructed in 1964 goes over the pass ultimately leading to the Rhone river valley on the other side. French is mainly spoken in Valais but near the pass German is spoken. The population of Ticino speaks Italian.</p><br>
<p>The road up the val is fairly straight until it approaches the pass, where it becomes hairpin. On the slope below the first hairpin at about 2,478 m is an area of springs from which the Ticino originates. Subsequently, it becomes a mountain brook flowing straight down the val to the village of AllAcqua or AllAcqua Ospizio at 1,614 m, named for the hospice for travellers located there at the previous end of the road in former centuries. Currently it is a base for skiing and hiking. Below it is Ronco at 1,487 m and Bedretto at 1,402 m. The val is subject to avalanches and snow can remain on the ground as late as September.</p><br>
<p>Below Bedretto the Ri di Cristallina, "Cristallina stream", comes in from the right at Ossasco, and further down Fontana, still in Bedretto. The entire area is laced with hiking trails and mountain huts.</p><br>
<h3>Valle Leventina</h3><br>
<p>Airolo</p><br>
<h3>Other</h3><br>
<p>in Switzerland: Bellinzona, Locarno (on Lake Maggiore).</p><br>
<p>in Italy: Stresa (on Lake Maggiore), Vigevano, Pavia.</p><br>
<p>Spitsbergen  is the largest and only permanently populated island of the Svalbard archipelago in northern Norway. Constituting the westernmost bulk of the archipelago, it borders the Arctic Ocean, the Norwegian Sea, and the Greenland Sea. Spitsbergen covers an area of 37,673 km&sup2, making it the largest island in Norway and the 36th-largest in the world. The administrative centre is Longyearbyen. Other settlements, in addition to research outposts, are the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the research community of Ny-Ålesund, and the mining outpost of Sveagruva. Spitsbergen was covered in 21,977 km&sup2; of ice in 1999, which was approximately 58.5% of the island&#39;s total area.</p><br>
<p>The island was first used as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries, after which it was abandoned. Coal mining started at the end of the 19th century and several permanent communities were established. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognized Norwegian sovereignty and established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone.</p><br>
<p>The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the only mining companies. Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries, featuring among others the University Centre in Svalbard and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft, and boats serve as local transport. Svalbard Airport, Longyear provides the main point of entry and exit.</p><br>
<p>The island has an Arctic climate, although with significantly higher temperatures than other places at the same latitude. The flora benefits from the long period of midnight sun, which compensates for the polar night. Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds, and also supports polar bears, reindeer and marine mammals. Six national parks protect the largely untouched, yet fragile environment. The island has many glaciers, mountains and fjords.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Spitsbergen was named by its discoverer, the Dutch navigator Willem Barentsz, in 1596. The name Spitsbergen, meaning “pointed mountains” (from the Dutch spits - pointed, bergen - mountains), was at first applied to both the main island and the archipelago as a whole. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, English whalers referred to the islands as "Greenland," a practice still followed in 1780 and criticized by Sigismund Bacstrom at that time. The "Spitzbergen" spelling was used in English during the 19th century, for instance by Beechey, Laing, and the Royal Society.</p><br>
<p>In 1906, the Arctic explorer Sir Martin Conway thought that the Spitzbergen spelling was incorrect, preferring Spitsbergen as he noted that the name was Dutch, not German. This had little effect on British practice. In 1920, the international treaty determining the fate of the islands was entitled the "Spitsbergen Treaty." The islands were generally referred to in the USA as Spitsbergen from that time, although the spelling Spitzbergen was also commonly used through the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Under Norwegian governance, the archipelago was named Svalbard in 1925, the main island becoming Spitsbergen. By the end of the 20th century, this usage had become common.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first confirmed and recorded sighting of the island by a European was by Willem Barentsz, who came across it while searching for the Northern Sea Route in June 1596. The first good map with the east coast roughly indicated, appeared in 1623, printed by Willem Janszoon Blaeu. Around 1660 and 1728, better maps were produced.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago may have been known to Russian Pomor hunters as early as the 14th or 15th century, although solid evidence preceding the 17th century is lacking. Following the English whalers and others in referring to the archipelago as Greenland, they named it Grumant (Грумант). The name Svalbard is first mentioned in Icelandic sagas of the 10th and 11th centuries, but this may have been Jan Mayen.</p><br>
<h3>Early claims</h3><br>
<p>Early whaling expeditions to Svalbard in general and Spitsbergen in particular tended, because of currents and fauna, to cluster around the western coast of Spitsbergen and the islands off-shore. Shortly after whaling began (1611), the Danish crown in 1616 claimed ownership of Jan Mayen and the Spitsbergen islands, as all of Svalbard was then known.</p><br>
<p>But in 1613, the English Muscovy Company had done the same. The primary and most profitable whaling grounds of this joint-stock company came to be centered on Spitsbergen in the early 17th century, and the company&#39;s 1613 Royal Charter from the English Crown granted a monopoly on whaling in Spitsbergen, based on the (erroneous) claim that Hugh Willoughby had discovered the land in 1553. Not only had they wrongly assumed a 1553 English voyage had reached the area, but on 27 June 1607, during his first voyage in search of a "northeast passage" on behalf of the company, Henry Hudson sighted "Newland" (i.e. Spitsbergen), near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later simply named the Great Indraught (Isfjorden). In this way the English hoped to head off expansion in the region by the Dutch, at the time their major rival.</p><br>
<p>Initially the English tried to drive away competitors; but after disputes with the Dutch (1613–24), they, for the most part, only claimed the bays south of Kongsfjorden.</p><br>
<h3>Danish expansion</h3><br>
<p>From 1617 onwards, a Danish-chartered company began sending whaling fleets to Spitsbergen. This successful expansion by Copenhagen into the North Atlantic has recently been cited by historians as the first step of the Danish-Norwegian state into overseas colonialism. It eventually built a small 17th-century empire of East Indian trade posts, North Atlantic possessions (such as Greenland and Iceland), and a small Atlantic trade route between possessions on the Guinea Coast (in modern Ghana) and what are now the US Virgin Islands.</p><br>
<p>The entire Svalbard archipelago, nominally ruled first by Denmark–Norway, and later the Norwegians (as Union between Sweden and Norway from 1814 to 1905, independent Norway from 1905), remained a source of riches for fishery and whaling vessels from many nations. The islands also became the launching point for a number of Arctic explorers, including William Edward Parry, Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Otto Martin Torell, Alfred Gabriel Nathorst, Roald Amundsen and Ernest Shackleton.</p><br>
<h3>Spitsbergen Treaty</h3><br>
<p>Between 1913 and 1920, Spitsbergen was a neutral condominium. The Spitsbergen Treaty of 9 February 1920, recognises the full and absolute sovereignty of Norway over all the arctic archipelago of Svalbard. The exercise of sovereignty is, however, subject to certain stipulations, and not all Norwegian law applies. Originally limited to nine signatory nations, over 40 are now signatories of the treaty. Citizens of any of the signatory countries may settle in the archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Once named Spitsbergen after its largest island, the Svalbard archipelago was made a part of Norway — not a dependency — by the Svalbard Act of 1925. Since this date it has been a region of Norway, with a Norwegian-appointed governor resident at the administrative centre of Longyearbyen. Limitations on the imposition of certain Norwegian laws are outlined in the Spitsbergen Treaty.</p><br>
<p>The largest settlement on Spitsbergen is the Norwegian town of Longyearbyen, while the second-largest settlement is the Russian coal mining settlement of Barentsburg. (This was sold by the Netherlands in 1932 to the Soviet company Arktikugol). Other settlements on the island include the former Russian mining communities of Grumantbyen and Pyramiden (abandoned in 1961 and 1998 respectively); a Polish research station at Hornsund; and the remote northern settlement of Ny-Ålesund.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>Allied soldiers were stationed on the island in 1941 to prevent Nazi Germany from occupying the islands. Norway came under German occupation in 1940. The majority of inhabitants on the island were Russian, and the Soviet Union had a non-aggression pact with Germany until 22 June 1941. The United Kingdom and Canada sent military forces to the island to destroy installations, mainly Soviet coal mines, and prevent the Germans from occupying it.</p><br>
<p>In 1943, the German battleship Tirpitz and an escort flotilla shelled and destroyed the Allied weather station in Operation Zitronella. On 6 September, a squadron consisting of Tirpitz, the battleship Scharnhorst and nine destroyers weighed anchor in Altenfjord and Kåfjord and headed for Spitsbergen, to attack the Allied base. At dawn on 8 September 1943, Tirpitz and Scharnhorst opened fire against the two 3-inch guns which comprised the defences of Barentsburg, and the destroyers ran inshore with landing parties, destroying a supply dump and wrecking a landing station. By noon, the hostilities had ended, with the landing parties returning to the ships, along with some prisoners. The German ships returned safely to Altenfjord and Kåfjord on 9 September 1943. This was to be the last operation for the Tirpitz.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over Svalbard. All current 40 signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination, although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation. The treaty limits Norway&#39;s right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard. Spitsbergen is a demilitarized zone, as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations. The treaty requires Norway to protect the natural environment. The island is administered by the Governor of Svalbard, who holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police, as well as authority granted from the executive branch. Although Norway is part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and the Schengen Agreement, Svalbard is not part of the Schengen Area nor EEA.</p><br>
<p>Residents of Spitsbergen do not need visas for Schengen, but are prohibited from reaching Svalbard from mainland Norway without such. People without a means to income can be rejected as residents by the governor. Citizens of any treaty signatory country may visit the island without a visa. Russia retains a consulate in Barentsburg.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, Spitsbergen had a population of 2,753, of which 423 were Russian and Ukrainian, 10 were Polish and 322 were non-Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements. The largest non-Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Thailand, Sweden, Denmark, Russia and Germany. Spitsbergen is among the safest places on Earth, with virtually no crime.</p><br>
<p>Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on the island, the seat of the governor, and the only incorporated town. It features a hospital, primary and secondary school, university, sports centre with a swimming pool, library, cultural centre, cinema, bus transport, hotels, a bank, and several museums. The newspaper Svalbardposten is published weekly. Only a small fraction of the mining activity remains at Longyearbyen; instead, workers commute to Sveagruva (or Svea) where Store Norske operates a mine. Sveagruva is a dorm town, with workers commuting from Longyearbyen on a weekly basis.</p><br>
<p>Since 2002, Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality, including utilities, education, cultural facilities, fire department, roads and ports. No care or nursing services are available, nor is welfare payment available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities. The hospital is part of University Hospital of North Norway, while the airport is operated by state-owned Avinor. Ny-Ålesund and Barentsburg remain company towns with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol, respectively. Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining, the Norwegian Polar Institute, the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway. Svalbard is subordinate Nord-Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal, both located in Tromsø.</p><br>
<p>Ny-Ålesund is a permanent settlement based entirely around research. Formerly a mining town, it is still a company town operated by the Norwegian state-owned Kings Bay. While there is some tourism at the village, Norwegian authorities limit the access to the outpost to minimise impact on the scientific work. Ny-Ålesund has a winter population of 35 and a summer population of 180. Poland operates the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund, with ten permanent residents.</p><br>
<p>Barentsburg is the only remaining Russian settlement, after Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998. A company town, all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, who operate a coal mine. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen. The village has facilities such as a school, library, sports center, community center, swimming pool, farm and greenhouse. Pyramiden has similar facilities; both are built in typical Soviet style and are the site of the world&#39;s two most northerly Lenin statues and other socialist realism artwork.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The three main industries on Spitsbergen are coal mining, tourism and research. In 2007, there were 484 people working in the mining sector, 211 people working in the tourism sector and 111 people working in the education sector. The same year, mining produced a revenue of NOK 2,008 million, tourism NOK 317 million and research NOK 142 million. Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees; there are only a few privately owned houses, most of which are recreational cabins. Because of this, it is almost impossible to live on Spitsbergen without working for an established institution.</p><br>
<p>Since the resettlement of Spitsbergen in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity. Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani, a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry, operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 3.4 million tonnes in 2008, while the latter sends 35% of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station. Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg. There has previously been some test drilling for petroleum on land, but this did not give results good enough to justify permanent operation. The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum drilling activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled on has been protected as nature reserves or national parks.</p><br>
<p>Spitsbergen Island coins were issued in 1946, with Russian Cyrillic lettering, in the USSR denomination of 10 and 20 kopecks. Then in 1993, coins were again minted in Russian values of 10, 20, 50, and 100 roubles. Both series have the motto "Arctic coal".</p><br>
<p>Spitsbergen has historically been a base for both whaling and fishing. Norway claimed a 200 NM exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around Svalbard in 1977, Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone, Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered on Longyearbyen. Activities include hiking, kayaking, walks through glacier caves and snow-scooter and dog-sled safaris. Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic, including stops by both offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard. Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August; overnight stays have quintupled from 1991 to 2008, when there were 93,000 guest-nights.</p><br>
<p>Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund, the most accessible areas in the high Arctic. Norway grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard, resulting in the Polish Polar Station, Indian Himadri Station, and the Chinese Arctic Yellow River Station, plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg. The University Centre in Svalbard in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences, particularly biology, geology and geophysics. Courses are provided to supplement studies at the mainland universities; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English, with Norwegian and international students equally represented. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a "doomsday" seedbank to store seeds from as many of the world&#39;s crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible. A cooperation between the government of Norway and the Global Crop Diversity Trust, the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen, keeping it at a natural −6 &deg;C and refrigerating the seeds to −18 &deg;C. The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is a 1,440 km fibre optic line from Svalbard to Harstad, needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellite through Svalbard Satellite Station and installations in Ny-Ålesund.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Within Longyearbyen, Barentsburg and Ny-Ålesund, there are road systems, but they do not connect with each other. Off-road motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground, but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter — both for commercial and recreational activities. Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg (45 km) and Pyramiden (100 km) is possible by snowmobile during winter, or by ship all year round. All settlements have ports and Longyearbyen has a bus system.</p><br>
<p>Svalbard Airport, Longyear, located 3 km from Longyearbyen, is the only airport offering air transport off and onto the island. Scandinavian Airlines has daily scheduled services to Tromsø and Oslo; there are also irregular charter services to Russia. Lufttransport provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to Ny-Ålesund Airport and Svea Airport for Kings Bay and Store Norske; these flights are in general not available to the public. There are heliports in Barentsburg and Pyramiden, and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a lesser extent the mining company Arktikugol.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average summer temperature at 4 &deg;C to 6 &deg;C and January averages at −12 &deg;C to −16 &deg;C. The North Atlantic Current moderates Spitsbergens&#39;s temperatures, particularly during winter, giving it up to 20 &deg;C higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in Russia and Canada. This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. The interior fjord areas and valleys, sheltered by the mountains, have less temperature differences than the coast, giving about 2 &deg;C lower summer temperatures and 3 &deg;C higher winter temperatures. On the south of Spitsbergen, the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west. During winter, the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 &deg;C, while about 3 &deg;C in summer.</p><br>
<p>Spitsbergen is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild, wet sea air from the south, creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds, particularly in winter; in January, a strong breeze is registered 17% of the time at Isfjord Radio, but only 1% of the time in July. In summer, particularly away from land, fog is common, with visibility under 1 km registered 20% of the time in July. Precipitation is frequent, but falls in small quantities, typically less than 400 mm in western Spitsbergen. More rain falls in the uninhabited east side, where there can be more than 1,000 mm.</p><br>
<h2>Glaciations on Dicksonland</h2><br>
<p>The Dicksonland peninsula (78°27’23.71” – 78°40’N and 15°7’57.07”E – 16°2’20.12”E) is located in the centre of West-Spitsbergen between the NNE branches of Isfjorden c. 1260 km away from the North Pole. The current glaciation consists of plateau-glaciers with outlet tongues. In the year 1976 the glacier snowline (ELA) has run at c. 500 m asl. Its orographic variations are dependent on the wind-exposition. During the Late Glacial glacier advance Dicksonland was situated on the peripheries of two local glaciation centers. At that time a superior inland glaciation of West-Spitsbergen can be ruled out.</p><br>
<p>With regard to the formation of a V-shaped valley system by subglacial meltwater erosion the culmination of the Late Glacial glaciation has to be dated to the time before c. 17 500 (+/-2000-1375) years. Here a correlation of Post Glacial glacier ends and radiocarbon (14C)-dated marine terraces is possible. Considering isostatic movement and the difference between calculated and real snowlines, a postglacial stage at about 10 400 years ago has been reconstructed with a snowline at c. 270 m asl above the former sea level. Stagnation at c. 9650 years ago coincides with a snowline at c. 320 above the former sea level. The historical glacier fluctuation around the year 1890 has taken place at a glacier snowline at c. 420 m asl what corresponds with a snowline-depression of c. 60 altitudinal meters compared with 1976.</p><br>
<p>The development of still currently existing, strong periglacial surface forms with patterned grounds has to be led back to the warm interglacial period before 7000 to 2000 years. Cause of this was the strong freezing and thawing of the bottom due to deeply thawed permafrost. Patterned grounds like these become smaller and smaller with the increasing absolute altitude, because the sorting depth in the frost debris is getting smaller.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>In addition to humans, three primarily terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the island: the Arctic fox, the Svalbard reindeer, and accidentally introduced southern vole, which are only found in Grumant. Attempts to introduce the Arctic hare and the muskox have both failed. There are fifteen to twenty types of marine mammals, including whales, dolphins, seals, walruses, and polar bears.</p><br>
<p>Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Spitsbergen, and one of the main tourist attractions. While they are protected, persons going outside settlements are required to carry a rifle to kill polar bears in self-defence, as a last resort should they attack. Spitsbergen shares a common polar bear population with the rest of Svalbard and Franz Joseph Land. The Svalbard reindeer (R. tarandus platyrhynchus) is a distinct sub-species. While it was previously almost extinct, hunting is permitted for both it and the Arctic fox. There are a limited number of domesticated animals in Russian settlements.</p><br>
<p>About thirty types of bird are found on Spitsbergen, most of which are migratory. The Barents Sea is among the areas in the world with most seabirds, with about 20 million counted during late summer. The most common are little auk, northern fulmar, thick-billed murre and black-legged kittiwake. Sixteen species are on the IUCN Red List. Particularly Storfjorden and Nordvest-Spitsbergen are important breeding ground for seabirds. The Arctic tern has the furthest migration, all the way to Antarctica. Only two songbirds migrate to Spitsbergen to breed: the snow bunting and the wheatear. Rock ptarmigan is the only bird to overwinter.</p><br>
<p>Remains of Predator X from the Jurassic period were discovered in 2008. It is the largest dinosaur-era marine reptile ever found — a pliosaur estimated to be almost 15 m long.</p><br>
<p>Svalbard has permafrost and tundra, with both low, middle and high Arctic vegetation. 165 species of plants have been found on the archipelago. The growing season is very short, and may last only a few weeks.</p><br>
<p>There are six national parks on Spitsbergen: Indre Wijdefjorden, Nordenskiöld Land, Nordre Isfjorden Land, Nordvest-Spitsbergen, Sassen-Bünsow Land and Sør-Spitsbergen. The island also features Festningen Geotope Protected Area; some of the northeastern coast is part of Nordaust-Svalbard Nature Reserve. All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected. Svalbard is on Norway&#39;s tentative list for nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>Crater Lake  is a caldera lake in south-central Oregon in the western United States. It is the main feature of Crater Lake National Park and is famous for its deep blue color and water clarity. The lake partly fills a nearly 2,148 ft-deep caldera that was formed around 7,700  years ago</p><br>
<p>by the collapse of the volcano Mount Mazama. There are no rivers flowing into or out of the lake; the evaporation is compensated for by rain and snowfall at a rate such that the total amount of water is replaced every 250 years. With a depth of 1,949 ft, the lake is the deepest in the United States. In the world, it ranks ninth for maximum depth, and third for mean (average) depth.</p><br>
<p>Crater Lake is also known for the "Old Man of the Lake", a full-sized tree which is now a stump that has been bobbing vertically in the lake for over a century. The low temperature of the water has slowed the decomposition of the wood, hence the longevity of the bobbing tree.</p><br>
<p>Crater Lake features two small islands. Wizard Island, located near the western shore of the lake, is a cinder cone approximately 316 acres (128 ha) in size. Phantom Ship, a natural rock pillar, is located near the southern shore.</p><br>
<p>While having no indigenous fish population, the lake was stocked from 1888 to 1941 with a variety of fish. Several species have formed self-sustaining populations.</p><br>
<p>Since 2002, one of the state&#39;s regular-issue license plate designs has featured Crater Lake.</p><br>
<p>The commemorative Oregon State Quarter, which was released by the United States Mint in 2005, features an image of Crater Lake on its reverse.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Crater Lake is in Klamath County, approximately 60 mi northwest of the county seat of Klamath Falls, and about 80 mi northeast of the city of Medford.</p><br>
<p>In June 1853, John Wesley Hillman became the first non-Native American explorer to report sighting the lake he named the "Deep Blue Lake." The lake was renamed at least three times, as Blue Lake, Lake Majesty, and finally Crater Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Dimensions and depth</h2><br>
<p>The lake is 5 by across, with a caldera rim ranging in elevation from 7000 to 8000 ft and an average lake depth of 1,148 ft. The lakes maximum depth has been measured at 1,949 ft, which is beneath about 13,000 ft of ice, and the recent depth soundings of OHiggins/San Martín Lake, which is along the border of Chile and Argentina.</p><br>
<p>When considering the mean, or average depth of lakes, Crater Lake becomes the deepest lake in the Western Hemisphere and the third-deepest in the world. Crater Lake Institute Director and limnologist Owen Hoffman states "Crater Lake is the deepest, when compared on the basis of average depth among lakes whose basins are entirely above sea level. The average depths of Lakes Baikal and Tanganyika are deeper than Crater Lake; however, both have basins that extend below sea level."</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Mazama, part of the Cascade Range volcanic arc, was built up mostly of andesite, dacite, and rhyodacite over a period of at least 400,000 years. The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption between 6,000 and 8,000 years ago that led to the subsidence of Mount Mazama. About 50 km3 of rhyodacite was erupted in this event. Since that time, all eruptions on Mazama have been confined to the caldera.</p><br>
<p>Lava eruptions later created a central platform, Wizard Island, Merriam Cone, and other, smaller volcanic features, including a rhyodacite dome that was eventually created atop the central platform. Sediments and landslide debris also covered the caldera floor.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, the caldera cooled, allowing rain and snow to accumulate and form a lake. Landslides from the caldera rim thereafter formed debris fans and turbidite sediments on the lake bed. Fumaroles and hot springs remained common and active during this period. Also after some time, the slopes of the lake&#39;s caldera rim more or less stabilized, streams restored a radial drainage pattern on the mountain, and dense forests began to revegetate the barren landscape. It is estimated that about 720 years was required to fill the lake to its present depth of 594 m. Much of this occurred during a period when the prevailing climate was less moist than at present.</p><br>
<p>Some hydrothermal activity remains along the lake floor, suggesting that at some time in the future Mazama may erupt once again.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Crater Lake is a subalpine climate, with the rare dry-summer type (Köppen classification Dsc) owing to its high elevation and – like all of Oregon – the strong summer influence of the North Pacific High. In the summer, the weather is mild and dry, but in the winter is cold and the powerful influence of the Aleutian Low allows for enormous snowfalls averaging 505 in per year and maximum snow cover averaging 139 in. This snow does not usually melt until mid-July, and allows for substantial glaciers on adjacent mountains. In the winter of 1949/1950 as much as 885.1 in of snow fell, while the less complete snow cover records show cover as high as 192 in occurred during another particularly unsettled winter in 1981/1982. The heaviest daily snowfall was 37.0 in, which occurred as recently as February 28, 1971; 20 in or more in one storm has occurred in both June and September. Hard frost is possible even into the summer, and the average window for freezing temperatures is August 19 through July 7, while for measurable (≥0.1 in) snowfall, October 1 through June 15.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality</h2><br>
<p>Due to several unique factors, mainly that the lake has no inlets or tributaries, the waters of Crater Lake are some of the purest in the world because of the absence of pollutants. Clarity readings from a Secchi disk have consistently been in the high-30 meter to mid-20 meter (80 to 115-foot) range, which is very clear for any natural body of water. In 1997, scientists recorded a record clarity of 53.3 m.</p><br>
<p>The lake has relatively high levels of dissolved salts, total alkalinity, and conductivity. The average pH has generally ranged between 7 and 8.</p><br>
<h2>Sacred significance</h2><br>
<p>The Klamath tribe of Native Americans, whose ancestors may have witnessed the collapse of Mount Mazama and the formation of Crater Lake, have long regarded the lake as a sacred site. Their legends tell of a battle between the sky god Skell and the god of the underworld Llao. Mount Mazama was destroyed in the battle, creating Crater Lake, called giiwas in the Klamath language. The Klamath people used Crater Lake in vision quests, which often involved climbing the caldera walls and other dangerous tasks. Those who were successful in such quests were often regarded as having more spiritual powers. The tribe still holds Crater Lake in high regard as a spiritual site.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kinabalu  is a mountain in Sabah, Malaysia. It is protected as Kinabalu Park, a World Heritage Site. Kinabalu is the highest peak in Borneo&#39;s Crocker Range and is the highest mountain in the Malay Archipelago as well as the highest mountain in Malaysia. Mount Kinabalu is also the 20th most prominent mountain in the world by topographic prominence.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, a re-survey using satellite technology established its summit (known as Low&#39;s Peak) height at 4,095 m above sea level, which is some 6 m less than the previously thought and hitherto published figure of 4,101 m.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kinabalu includes the Kinabalu montane alpine meadows ecoregion in the montane grasslands and shrublands biome. The mountain and its surroundings are among the most important biological sites in the world, with between 5,000 and 6,000 species of plants, 326 species of birds, and more than 100 mammalian species identified. Among this rich collection of wildlife are famous species such as the gigantic Rafflesia plants and orangutans. Mount Kinabalu has been accorded UNESCO World Heritage status.</p><br>
<p>Low&#39;s Peak can be climbed by a person in good physical condition and there is no need for mountaineering equipment at any point on the main route.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Kinabalu along with other upland areas of the Crocker Range is known worldwide for its botanical and biological species biodiversity with plants of Himalayan, Australasian, and Indomalayan origin. A recent botanical survey of the mountain estimated a staggering 5,000 to 6,000 plant species (excluding mosses and liverworts but including ferns), which is more than all of Europe and North America (excluding tropical regions of Mexico) combined. It is therefore one of the world&#39;s most important biological sites.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, a major Malaysian-Dutch study showed that the unique flora, fauna, and fungi on the mountain summit are younger than the mountain itself, and have evolved from both local and distant montane ancestors.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The flora covers the mountain in zones of different types of habitat as one climbs up, beginning with a lowland belt of fig trees and insectivorous pitcher plants. Then between 2600 to 3200 m is a layer of short trees such the conifer Dacrydium gibbsiae and dwarf shrubs, mosses, lichens, liverworts, and ferns. Finally many of the world&#39;s richest variety of orchids are found on the high rockier slopes.</p><br>
<p>These plants have high levels of endemism (i.e. species which are found only within Kinabalu Park and are not found anywhere else in the world). The orchids are the best-known example with over 800 species including some of the highly valued Paphiopedilum slipper orchids, but there are also over 600 species of ferns (more than the whole of Africa&#39;s 500 species) of which 50 are found nowhere else, and the richest collection in the world for the Nepenthes pitcher plants (five of the thirteen are found nowhere else on earth) which reach spectacular proportions (the largest-pitchered in the world being the endemic Nepenthes rajah). The parasitic Rafflesia plant, which has the largest single flower in the world, is also found in Kinabalu (particularly Rafflesia keithii whose flower grows to 94 cm in diameter), though it should be noted that blooms of the flower are rare and difficult to find. Meanwhile, another Rafflesia species, Rafflesia tengku-adlinii, can be found on the neighbouring Mount Trus Madi and the nearby Maliau Basin.</p><br>
<p>Its incredible biodiversity in plant life is due to a combination of several unique factors: its setting in one of the richest plant regions of the world (the tropical biogeographical region known as western Malesia which comprises the island of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and the island of Borneo), the fact that the mountain covers a wide climatic range from near sea level to freezing ground conditions near the summit, the jagged terrain and diversity of rocks and soils, the high levels of rainfall (averaging about 2,700 mm a year at park HQ), and the climatic instability caused by periods of glaciation and catastrophic droughts which result in evolution and speciation. This diversity is greatest in the lowland regions (consisting of lowland dipterocarp forests, so called because the tree family Dipterocarpaceae are dominant). However, most of Kinabalu&#39;s endemic species are found in the mountain forests, particularly on ultramafic soils (i.e. soils which are low in phosphates and high in iron and metals poisonous to many plants; this high toxic content gave rise to the development of distinctive plant species found nowhere else).</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The variety of plant life is also habitat for a great variety of birds and mammals. There are some 326 species of birds in Kinabalu Park, including the spectacular rhinoceros hornbill, mountain serpent-eagle, Dulit frogmouth, eyebrowed jungle flycatcher, and bare-headed laughingthrush. Twenty-four birds are mainly found on the mountain. The mountain is home to some 100 mammalian species mostly living high in the trees, including one of the four great apes, the orangutan (though sightings of these are uncommon; estimates of its numbers in the park range from 25 to 120). Other mammals include three kinds of deer, the Malayan weasel (Mustela nudipes), oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), and leopard cat (Felis bengalensis). Endemic mammals include the black shrew (Suncus ater) and Bornean ferret-badger (Melogale everetti).</p><br>
<p>Endemic annelids number less than a dozen known species but include the Kinabalu giant red leech that preys on various earthworms, including the Kinabalu giant earthworm. In the summit zone, at least 26 endemic species of land snail exist. In 2012, a major scientific expedition, jointly organised by the Malaysian Sabah Parks and the Dutch Naturalis Biodiversity Center, performed DNA analysis of several dozen endemic flora, fauna, and fungi, to understand the evolutionary origin of the unique biodiversity of Kinabalu.</p><br>
<h3>Threats and preservation</h3><br>
<p>The steep mountainsides with poor soil are not suitable for farming or for the timber industry so the habitats and animal life of Kinabalu remain largely intact, with about a third of the original habitat now degraded. Kinabalu Park was established in 1964 and the nearby mountains were protected as the Crocker Range National Park in 1984. However even national park status does not guarantee full protection, as logging permits were granted on Trus Madi in 1984.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Kinabalu is essentially a massive pluton formed from granodiorite which is intrusive into sedimentary and ultrabasic rocks, and forms the central part, or core, of the Kinabalu massif. The granodiorite is intrusive into strongly folded strata, probably of Eocene to Miocene age, and associated ultrabasic and basic igneous rocks. It was pushed up from the earths crust as molten rock millions of years ago. In geological terms, it is a very young mountain as the granodiorite cooled and hardened only about 10 million years ago. The present landform is considered to be a mid-Pliocene peneplain, arched and deeply dissected, through which the Kinabalu granodiorite body has risen in isostatic adjustment. It is still pushing up at the rate of 5 mm per annum. During the Pleistocene Epoch of about 100,000 years ago, the massive mountain was covered by huge sheets of ice and glaciers which flowed down its slopes, scouring its surface in the process and creating the 1,800 m deep Lows Gully (named after Hugh Low) on its north side. Its granite composition and the glacial formative processes are readily apparent when viewing its craggy rocky peaks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>British colonial administrator Hugh Low made the first recorded ascent of Mount Kinabalus summit plateau in March 1851. Low did not scale the mountains highest peak, however, considering it "inaccessible to any but winged animals". In April and July 1858, Low was accompanied on two further ascents by Spenser St. John, the British Consul in Brunei. The highest point of Mount Kinabalu was finally reached in 1888 by zoologist John Whitehead. British botanist Lilian Gibbs became the first woman and the first botanist to summit Mount Kinabalu in February 1910.</p><br>
<p>Botanist E. J. H. Corner led two important expeditions of the Royal Society of Great Britain to the mountain in 1961 and 1964. Kinabalu National Park was established in 1964. The park was designated a natural World Heritage Site in 2000.</p><br>
<h3>2015 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>On 5 June 2015 at 07:15 MST, the area around Mount Kinabalu was damaged by an earthquake. Eighteen people, including hikers and mountain guides, were killed by the earthquake and a massive landslide that followed it. Ranau and many parts of Sabah West Coast were affected and Donkey Ear&#39;s Peak was heavily damaged.</p><br>
<p>Six days before the earthquake, around ten western tourists (comprising six men and four women from Canada, Germany, Netherlands and the United Kingdom) "stripped and urinated at the mountain (which locals believe has angered the spirit at the sacred place)". The tourists also allegedly shouted vulgarities when they were told to desist by their mountain guide, but this was later dismissed by the judge in their trial. This provoked outrage among certain Sabahans, who want all of the alleged offenders charged in native court and forced to pay the "sogit", a type of compensation, given in the form of money or livestock, to appease the aggrieved party according to local Kadazan-Dusun customs. It is imposed on wrongdoers for the purpose of appeasing "the aggrieved", thus placating the community. However, as most of the detained tourists have been released from Malaysia&#39;s prison and escaping native court, the local villagers had to perform their own rituals. Following the incident, some of the tourists and their families have expressed their apologies to all involved parties, and the government of the United Kingdom began to review its travel advice for Malaysia.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing permit</h2><br>
<p>Sabah Parks grants a summit-climbing permit only to climbers who stay at mountain huts. Due to the limited number of beds at the mountain huts, only 130 persons are allowed to climb Mount Kinabalu per day. There are only 3 types of mountain hut owned by either Sutera Sanctuary Lodges, Mountain Torq or Sabah Parks. Accommodation package can be purchased directly from them. (The hut owned by Sabah Parks is restricted only to Malaysians.)</p><br>
<h2>Climbing route</h2><br>
<p>Climbers must be accompanied by accredited guides at all times due to national park regulations. There are two main starting points for the climb: the Timpohon Gate (located 5.5 km from Kinabalu Park Headquarters, at an altitude of 1,866 m), and the Mesilau Nature Resort. The latter starting point is slightly higher in elevation, but crosses a ridge, adding about two kilometres to the ascent and making the total elevation gain slightly higher. The two trails meet about two kilometres before Laban Rata.</p><br>
<p>Accommodation is available inside the park or outside near the headquarters. Sabah Parks has privatised Mount Kinabalu activities to an organisation called Sutera Sanctuary Lodges. The mountain may be climbed on a single day trip, or hikers may (usually) stay one night at Laban Rata Resthouse at 3,270 m to complete the climb in 2 days, finishing the ascent and descending on the second day. The majority of climbers begin the ascent on day one of a two-day hike from Timpohon gate at 1,866 m, reaching this location either by minibus or by walking, and then walk to Laban Rata. Most people accomplish this part of the climb in 3 to 6 hours. Since there are no roads, the supplies for the Laban Rata Resthouse are carried by porters, who sometimes bring more than 35 kilograms of supplies on their backs. Hot food and beverages are available at Laban Rata. Most rooms have no hot water in the bathrooms and whilst the dining area is heated, most rooms are not. The last 2 km, from the Laban Rata Resthouse at 3,270 m to Low&#39;s Peak (summit) at 4,095.2 m, takes between 2 and 4 hours. The last part of the climb is on bare granite rock.</p><br>
<p>Given the high altitude, some people may suffer from altitude sickness although staying overnight at the lodges before the climb and climbing at a lower rate of ascent may reduce the likelihood of this happening.</p><br>
<h3>Low's gully</h3><br>
<p>Lows Gully (named after Hugh Low who first looked down into it in 1851) is a 1,800 m deep gorge carved out by glaciation on the north side of Mount Kinabalu, that is one of the least explored and most inhospitable places on earth. In March 1994 two British Army officers were severely criticised after leading a party of 7 British and 3 Hong Kong soldiers in an attempt to abseil and climb down into the gully that required extensive rescue efforts from both the RAF and the Malaysian army. The party were not equipped with radios and the 2 officers and 3 Hong Kong soldiers were trapped for 16 days and did not eat for five days before being rescued when stretchers were lowered by helicopter. The breakaway party of five completed the first descent of the gully in three days. A book about the 31-day fight for survival entitled Descent Into Chaos was published in 1996 and a film drama The Place of the Dead was released in 1997. The first successful complete descent of Lows Gully was achieved by a 27 strong joint Malaysian-British team led by mountaineer and former British Army officer Pat Gunson in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>Naming myths</h2><br>
<p>There are two stories that led to the main beliefs in the origin of the mountains name. The first derivation of the word Kinabalu is extracted from the short form for the Kadazan-Dusun word Aki Nabalu, meaning "the revered place of the dead". Considering the fact that the word "Nabalu" in many Dusun dialects literally means mountain&#39;, means that this explanation is the most likely.</p><br>
<p>A popular story told to Western and Chinese tourists states that the name "Kinabalu" actually means "Cina Balu" (which would fully mean "A Chinese Widow"). Due to the lingual influence among the Kadazan Dusun of Sabah, the pronunciation for the word "cina" (chee-na) was changed to "Kina" (kee-na). Nobody actually knows when or where this story came from but it seems to have originated within the last 30 years.</p><br>
<p>It was told that a Chinese prince, was cast away to Borneo when his ship sank in the middle of the South China Sea. He was subsequently rescued by the natives from a nearby village. As he recovered, he was slowly accepted as one of the people of the village. Eventually, he fell in love with a local woman, and married her. Years went by, and he started to feel homesick. So he asked permission from his newly found family to go back to China to visit his parents (the Emperor and Empress of China). To his wife, he promised that as soon as he was done with his family duties in China, he would come back to Borneo to take her and their children back to China. When he made his return to China, he was given a grand welcome by his family. However, to his dismay, his parents disagreed with him about taking his Bornean wife back to China. Worse, they told him that he was already betrothed to a princess of a neighbouring kingdom. Having no choice (due to high respect towards his parents), he obeyed with a heavy heart.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, back in Borneo, his wife grew more and more anxious. Eventually, she decided that she would wait for her husbands ship. However, since the village was situated far away from the coast, she couldnt afford to come to the shore and wait for him daily. Instead she decided to climb to the top of the highest mountain near her village, so that she could have a better view of the ships sailing in the South China Sea. Thus, she was then seen climbing up the mountain at every sunrise, returning only at night to attend to her growing children. Eventually her efforts took their toll. She fell ill, and died at the top of the cold mountain while waiting for her husband. The spirit of the mountain, having observed her for years, was extremely touched by her loyalty towards her husband. Out of admiration for this woman, the spirit of the mountain turned her into a stone. Her face was made to face the South China Sea, so that she could wait forever for her dear husband&#39;s return. The people in her hometown who heard about this were also gravely touched by this. Thus, they decided to name the mountain "Kinabalu" in remembrance of her. To them, the mountain is a symbol of the everlasting love and loyalty that should be taken as a good example by women.</p><br>
<p>Local legend among the people of Ranau, a district in Sabah, has it that St. John&#39;s Peak was the stone which her body was turned into.</p><br>
<h2>Temperature</h2><br>
<p>The temperature of Mount Kinabalu usually stands from −4 °C to 8 °C in December to January, and 3 °C to 12 °C in June to September. Due to the coldness of the mountain in December to January, sometimes frost, ice or even snow appears at the summit of Mount Kinabalu.</p><br>
<p>Collinsville is a village and census-designated place  in the town of Canton, Hartford County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 3,746 at the 2010 census. The central portion of the village is a historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>It was built around the Collins Company Axe Factory, a world-renowned manufacturer of edge tools, such as axes, machetes, picks and knives. Collins machetes were the brand of choice in South America. Collins tools were used almost exclusively for the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, and axes and picks made their way across the country to be used in the California Gold Rush. Admiral Peary carried Collins tools to the North Pole.</p><br>
<p>Typical of New England mills, the Collins Company axe factory was sited on a river (the Farmington), and their production was powered by utilizing the water&#39;s strength to turn turbines and power machines. The numerous old buildings ramble along the riverbanks intertwined by an intricate maze of sluices that run throughout the site. The company closed its doors in 1966, but the factory buildings stayed standing and are now rented out to local businesses. The ambiance of Main Street reflects period architecture with ornate details from the start of the 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to historian Diana Muir writing in Reflections in Bullough&#39;s Pond, it was in Collinsville that Elisha Root invented the important industrial technique of die casting. Root was employed by Samuel W. Collins whose Collins and Company was the largest manufacturer of axes in the nineteenth century.</p><br>
<p>Collinsville hosts an annual Halloween Parade through the historic town. The parade is held on the last Saturday of October at 7 p.m. Children&#39;s activities begin at 6 p.m.</p><br>
<p>Collinsville was voted one of the "Top 10 Coolest Small Towns in America" in the September 2007 issue of Arthur Frommer&#39;s Budget Travel magazine.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 9.2 km&sup2, of which 8.1 km&sup2; is land and 1.1 km&sup2, or 11.79%, is water.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of the census of 2000, there were 2,686 people, 1,080 households, and 723 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 871.8 people per square mile (336.7/km). There were 1,128 housing units at an average density of 366.1 per square mile (141.4/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.54% White, 0.56% African American, 0.07% Native American, 0.48% Asian, 0.30% from other races, and 1.04% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.60% of the population.</p><br>
<p>There were 1,080 households out of which 32.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.9% were married couples living together, 11.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% were non-families. 26.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.91.</p><br>
<p>In the CDP, the population was spread out with 24.3% under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 31.9% from 25 to 44, 26.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.1 males.</p><br>
<p>The median income for a household in the CDP was $60,690, and the median income for a family was $66,550. Males had a median income of $44,414 versus $37,679 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $29,050. About 1.4% of families and 1.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.3% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.</p><br>
<h2>Sites</h2><br>
<p>Collinsville is located directly on the Farmington River, and is a common place for people to walk and bike to, due to its convenient location along the Rails to Trails path. There are many cultural attractions in this town center, including LaSalle Restaurant, where customers are allowed to leave before paying, and return when they have finished eating, to pay. Frequently on Sundays and other occasions, there are live music demonstrations in the parking lot outside.</p><br>
<p>The Canton Historical Museum is located in a former Collins Company factory building built in 1865. Originally constructed to finish and assemble agricultural plows, the building was converted in 1924 to a recreational facility for its employees. Fred Widen, a pattern maker for the company, used a portion of the building for his large collection of Collins memorabilia. Today, the Canton Historical Society owns the 14,000+ sq. ft. building and has a large assortment of Collins Tools, as well as many Victorian items, a general store, farm/agricultural equipment, children&#39;s toys, looms, and a Bridal Parlor featuring wedding dresses worn by Canton residents from the late 1800s. Also of interest, are several Regina music boxes, a large pump fire engine, used by the Collins Company, an Edison phonograph and Edison fans. Upstairs, the Farmington Valley Railroad Society operates a railroad diorama of the village of Collinsville around the start of the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>A research and genealogical library containing thousands of documents and photographs related to Canton and Collinsville history is also located upstairs, including black and white photos of the 1955 flood. Information about local cemeteries in Canton and Collinsville are available in the library. The museum covers three floors with limited handicap accessibility, but plans are underway to make the building more accessible in the future.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century, a Collinsville butcher feuded with his neighbor. To spite his neighbor, the butcher built between their adjoining houses a narrow, two-story structure with windows covered by Venetian blinds. The wooden building located between 23 and 25 River Street was the width of a standard stairway and allowed the butcher to block the sun to the neighbors home and block the neighbors view of the butchers property at will. The butchers son got along with the family next door and eventually tore down the Collinsville Spite House.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire  is an island in the Leeward Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. Together with Aruba and Curaçao, it forms the group known as the ABC islands, less than a hundred miles off the north coast of South America near the western part of Venezuela. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, the ABCs lie outside the hurricane belt. The islands have an arid climate, which helps tourism, as visitors to the islands can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. Bonaire is a popular destination for scuba diving, and easy access from shore to its fringing reefs.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s capital is Kralendijk. The island has a permanent population of 18,905 (as of 1 January 2015) and an area of 294 km (together with nearby uninhabited Klein Bonaire). Bonaire was part of the Netherlands Antilles until the country&#39;s dissolution in 2010, when the island became a special municipality (officially “public body”) within the country of the Netherlands. It is one of the three BES islands in the Caribbean, along with Sint Eustatius and Saba.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name &#39;Bonaire&#39; is thought to have originally come from the Caquetio word &#39;Bonay&#39;, a name that meant low country. The early Spanish and Dutch modified its spelling to Bojnaj and also Bonaire. The French influence, while present at various times, was never strong enough to make the assumption that the name means &#39;good air&#39;.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Original inhabitants</h3><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s earliest known inhabitants were the Caquetio Indians, a branch of the Arawak who came by canoe from Venezuela in about 1000 AD. Archeological remains of Caquetio culture have been found at certain sites northeast of Kralendijk and near Lac Bay. Caquetio rock paintings and petroglyphs have been preserved in caves at Spelonk, Onima, Ceru Pungi, and Ceru Crita-Cabai. The Caquetios were apparently a very tall people, for the Spanish name for the ABC Islands was &#39;las Islas de los Gigantes&#39; or &#39;the islands of the giants.&#39;</p><br>
<h3>European arrival</h3><br>
<p>In 1499, Alonso de Ojeda arrived in Curaçao and a neighbouring island that was almost certainly Bonaire. Ojeda was accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci and Juan de la Cosa. De La Cosa&#39;s Mappa Mundi of 1500 shows Bonaire and calls it Isla do Palo Brasil or "Island of Brazilwood". The Spanish conquerors decided that the three ABC Islands were useless, and in 1515 the natives were forcibly deported to work as slaves in the copper mines of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish period</h3><br>
<p>In 1526, Juan de Ampies was appointed Spanish commander of the ABC Islands. He brought back some of the original Caquetio Indian inhabitants to Bonaire and Curaçao. Ampies also imported domesticated animals from Spain, including cows, donkeys, goats, horses, pigs, and sheep. The Spaniards thought that Bonaire could be used as a cattle plantation worked by natives. The cattle were raised for hides rather than meat. The Spanish inhabitants lived mostly in the inland town of Rincon which was safe from pirate attack.</p><br>
<h3>Dutch period</h3><br>
<p>The Dutch West India Company was founded in 1621. Starting in 1623, ships of the West India Company called at Bonaire to obtain meat, water, and wood. The Dutch also abandoned some Spanish and Portuguese prisoners there, and these people founded the town of Antriol which is a contraction of Spanish al interior (English: inside). The Dutch and the Spanish fought from 1568 to 1648 in what is now known as the Eighty Years War. In 1633, the Dutch—having lost the island of St. Maarten to the Spanish—retaliated by attacking Curaçao, Bonaire, and Aruba. Bonaire was conquered in March 1636. The Dutch built Fort Oranje in 1639.</p><br>
<p>While Curaçao emerged as a center of the slave trade, Bonaire became a plantation of the Dutch West India Company. A small number of African slaves were put to work alongside Indians and convicts, cultivating dyewood and maize and harvesting solar salt around Blue Pan. Slave quarters, built entirely of stone and too short for a man to stand upright in, still stand in the area around Rincon and along the saltpans as a grim reminder of Bonaire&#39;s repressive past.</p><br>
<h3>British period</h3><br>
<p>During the Napoleonic Wars, the Netherlands lost control of Bonaire twice, once from 1800 to 1803 and again from 1807 to 1816. During these intervals, the British had control of the neighboring island of Curaçao and of Bonaire. The ABC islands were returned to the Netherlands under the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. During the period of British rule, a large number of white traders settled on Bonaire, and they built the settlement of Playa (Kralendijk) in 1810.</p><br>
<h3>Emancipation</h3><br>
<p>From 1816 until 1868, Bonaire remained a government plantation. In 1825, there were about 300 government-owned slaves on the island. Gradually many of the slaves were freed, and became freemen with an obligation to render some services to the government. The remaining slaves were freed on 30 September 1862 under the Emancipation Regulation. A total of 607 government slaves and 151 private slaves were freed at that time.</p><br>
<h3>Allotment</h3><br>
<p>In 1867 the government sold most of the public lands, and in 1870 they sold the saltpans. The entire population became dependent on two large private landowners, and this caused a great deal of suffering for many people. Many inhabitants were forced to move to Aruba, Curaçao, or Venezuela.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>During the German occupation of the Netherlands during World War II, Bonaire was a protectorate of Britain and the United States. The American army built the Flamingo Airport as an air force base. After Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, many German and Austrian citizens were interned in a camp on Bonaire for the war&#39;s duration.</p><br>
<p>In 1944, Princess Juliana of the Netherlands and Eleanor Roosevelt visited the troops on Bonaire.</p><br>
<h3>Post-war</h3><br>
<p>After the war, the economy of Bonaire continued to develop. The airport was converted to civilian use and the former internment camp was converted to become the first hotel on Bonaire.</p><br>
<p>The Dutch Schunck family built a clothing factory known as Schunck&#39;s Kledingindustrie Bonaire. In 1964, Trans World Radio began broadcasting from Bonaire. Radio Netherlands Worldwide built two short wave transmitters on Bonaire in 1969. The second major hotel (Bonaire Beach Hotel)</p><br>
<p>was completed in 1962. Salt production resumed in 1966 when the salt pans were expanded and modernized by the Antilles International Salt Company, a subsidiary of the International Salt Company. Part of the facilities extend into the Caribbean Sea and form the popular dive site known as Salt Pier.</p><br>
<p>The Bonaire Petroleum Corporation (BOPEC) oil terminal was opened in 1975 for trans-shipping oil.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Bonaire lies about 50 mi off the coast of Venezuela on the continental shelf of South America, and is thus geologically considered a part of the continent.</p><br>
<p>Geologists believe that Bonaire was formed relatively recently. As the nearby continental shelf (now located near Montserrat, and the cause of the volcanic activity on that island) moved through the area, it forced a large mass of rock to the ocean surface and created the islands of the Lesser and Greater Antilles, including Bonaire. As the sea bed rose a vast coral reef grew on what is now dry land. These corals were eventually exposed to air and perished, becoming surface limestone deposits over the millennia.</p><br>
<p>Vast amounts of coral skeletons may be seen along the shoreline, and across the interior of Bonaire. The island is essentially a coral reef that has been geologically pushed up and out of the sea. This also resulted in the natural fringing reef system seen today, in which the coral formations start at the shoreline. Tidal variations are only about 1.8 -, so the corals start at the low tide line and continue on, following the underwater topology of the island&#39;s base. Bonaire&#39;s tides are more affected by a combination of wind and low/high pressure systems than by the moon.</p><br>
<p>The northern end of the island is relatively mountainous, although its highest peak is only 240 m. The southern part of the island is nearly flat and barely rises above sea level. A significant portion of this southern region is covered with sea water in process of evaporation for salt production. This area also contains Lac Bay with its large mangrove forest. The shoreline of Bonaire is dotted with lagoons and inlets, the largest of which is Goto Lake in the north. These lagoons and wetlands provide an excellent habitat for a wide variety of shorebirds.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire has a warm, dry (though humid), and windy climate. The average temperature is 81.5 &deg;F with a 2.5 &deg;F seasonal variation, and 10 &deg;F daily variation. The ocean temperature around the island fluctuates between 78 and. The highest recorded temperature is 96.4 &deg;F and the lowest, 67.6 &deg;F. Nearly constant winds blow from the east with an average speed of 12 kn.</p><br>
<p>The humidity is very constant, averaging 76% and fluctuating between 85% and 66% on a daily basis. Average annual rainfall is 20.5 in, most of which occurs in October through January. Bonaire lies outside the hurricane belt, though its weather and oceanic conditions are occasionally affected by hurricanes and tropical storms. This semi-arid climate is conducive to a variety of cacti and other desert plants.</p><br>
<p>Klein Bonaire, the small island in the sheltered lee of the Bonaire, has the same geological history. While Bonaire has some hills and variations in altitude, Klein Bonaire&#39;s surface is quite level and just a few feet above high tide. Because the island is as-yet undeveloped, the fringing reef system surrounding Klein Bonaire is truly pristine. The smaller island is entirely ringed with dive sites.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire has a land area of 288 km&sup2;, while Klein Bonaire is an additional 6 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Washington Slagbaai National Park is an ecological preserve on the north side of the island. The highest point of Bonaire, Mount Brandaris, 240 m high is located within this preserve and has a complete view of the island.</p><br>
<h3>Ecology</h3><br>
<p>Bonaire is fringed by a coral reef which is accessible to divers from the shore along the lee side of the island (facing west southwest). The entire coastline of the island was designated a marine sanctuary in 1979, an effort to preserve and protect the delicate coral reef and the marine life that depends on it. There are more than 350 species of fish and sixty species of coral living in Bonaire&#39;s reef. Boulder Star Coral (Montastraea annularis) is the most common coral, according to a 2011 survey.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire is also famed for its flamingo populations and its donkey sanctuary. Flamingos are drawn to the brackish water of the island&#39;s lagoons, which harbours the shrimp upon which they feed. Bonaire is home to one of only four nesting grounds for the Caribbean flamingo. Located in the Pekelmeer in the southern part of the island, no human entry is permitted in this sanctuary. In the 16th century, Europeans introduced sheep, goats, pigs, horses and donkeys on Bonaire, and the descendants of the donkeys, goats, and pigs roam the island today.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire is also home to the ecologically vulnerable yellow-shouldered amazon parrot, Amazona barbadensis.</p><br>
<h3>Environmental initiatives</h3><br>
<p>The island of Bonaire has long been a leader in nature conservation and ecological responsibility. Stichting Nationale Parken (STINAPA), Bonaire&#39;s National Park Foundation, was founded in 1962 for the purpose of actively protecting nature on the island. In 1969 STINAPA succeeded in establishing both the flamingo nesting sanctuary and Washington National Park, the first such nature preserves in the Caribbean. In 1979, the Slagbaai plantation was added to the park, now known as Washington Slagbaai National Park. The Bonaire National Marine Park was also established in 1979. The Marine Park consists of the whole coastline of Bonaire from the high-water mark down to a depth of 200 ft and includes a large mangrove forest in Lac Bay. Lac Bay, Klein Bonaire, Pekelmeer, Slagbaii, and Gotomeer are internationally recognized RAMSAR sites.</p><br>
<p>Due to a public-private sector partnership, programs are being developed to advance the local awareness and attitudes toward conservation and habitat preservation in order to proactively protect Bonaire&#39;s ecosystem. A new sewage treatment plant will contribute to protecting the reefs and the seawater quality. In March 2013 http://ilovebonaire.com/bonaire/en/services/other/selibon-nv Selibon NV, the national garbage-processing plant, opened an environmental court where the general public can bring glass, cans, paper, scrap metal, cardboard, batteries, motor oil, cooking oil, electronics, mobile phones and textiles.</p><br>
<p>http://ilovebonaire.com/bonaire/en/services/other/bonrecycling BonRecycling BV is committed to recycling waste products in Bonaire and to create awareness among the people of Bonaire about the importance and benefits of recycling. http://ilovebonaire.com/bonaire/en/activities/diving/dive-friends-bonaire Dive Friends Bonaire started a Debris Free Bonaire program that emphasises collecting debris washed ashore and delivering it to the dive shop for separation in preparation for handling by BonRecycling.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire gets a significant amount of its electricity from an array of twelve wind generators along its northeastern coastline which began operating in 2010. This renewable source now fills 40-45% of the island&#39;s electricity needs. Work continues in developing additional renewable sources of energy, including bio-diesel and solar, with the goal of becoming 100% reliant on renewables.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<h3>2010 referendum</h3><br>
<p>Prior to the 2010 referendum, the Netherlands Antilles comprising the islands of Curaçao, Bonaire, St. Eustatius, St. Maarten and Saba, were governed as a parliamentary democracy based on the Dutch system of government with free elections held every four years. Dissension about the political future resulted in four of the five islands advocating for separation from the Netherlands Antilles. Some of the island residents wanted autonomy while others wanted more integration.</p><br>
<p>In 2005 a conference was held by the governments of the Netherlands, Aruba, and the Netherlands Antilles to discuss future constitutional reform and dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. In 2006, Saint Maarten and Curaçao chose autonomy, and Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba opted for a closer relationship with the Netherlands. Constitutional referendums and dismantlement of the Netherlands Antilles was scheduled to take place in 2010.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s announced referendum scheduled for 26 March 2010 was cancelled in February 2010. The Governor of the Dutch Antilles, Frits Goedgedrag, decided to cancel it because it probably contravened international law, since part of the population is barred from voting. European Dutch nationals are only allowed to vote if they arrived on the island before 1 January 2007. The referendum was postponed to September and then October 2010. Eventually the referendum was held on 17 December 2010, with 84% voting in favour of becoming part of the Netherlands. However, as the 35% voter turnout rate was below the required 51%, the results of the referendum were declared invalid.</p><br>
<h3>Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles</h3><br>
<p>On 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. As a result, the government of the Netherlands assumed the task of public administration of the Caribbean Netherlands or BES Islands comprising Bonaire, St Eustatius and Saba. The three islands acquired new status as "special municipalities" (bijzondere gemeenten), making them part of the Netherlands itself, a form of "public body" (openbaar lichaam) as outlined in article 134 of the Dutch Constitution. Special municipalities do not constitute part of a province.</p><br>
<p>As a special municipality, Bonaire is very much like ordinary Dutch municipalities in that it has a mayor, aldermen and a municipal council, and is governed according to most Dutch law. Antillean legislation remained in force after 10 October 2010, with the exception of those cases where Antillean law was replaced by Bonaire&#39;s municipal law. It was believed best for the island to not introduce the entire body of Dutch legislation at one time as it would cause confusion. Therefore, Dutch legislation is being introduced in stages. Bonaire retained its own unique culture while residents enjoy the same rights as Dutch citizens, including the right to vote in Dutch parliamentary elections in the Netherlands. Residents also have access to new or improved facilities and government benefits including, but not limited to, universal health care; improved health care facilities; better educational facilities with additional training for teachers, new teaching methods, and new school buildings; social housing for low-income individuals and families; a centrally dispatched single police force, fire department and ambulance service. While the three islands are considered to be land of the Netherlands, they are not a part of the European Union, therefore not subject to European Union Law. They are considered to be an overseas country and territory and will remain as such until at least 2015.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s non-governmental organization, Nos Ke Boneiru Bèk ("We Want Bonaire Back"), is against the current constitutional relationship with the Netherlands. With reference to Bonaire&#39;s 2004 referendum, the organization is of the opinion that such an arrangement was never the choice of the people. The Dutch Minister of Home Affairs and Kingdom Relations, Ronald Plasterk, replied to the organization confirming that only the "Island Councils in the Caribbean Netherlands have the authority to decide on holding a constitutional referendum, not the Dutch government." In response, the organization gathered more than 3,500 signatures in 2013 favoring a new referendum. In a letter to minister Plasterk, James Finies, chairman of Nos Ke Boneiru Bèk, requested a "new referendum under the right of self-determination". Plasterk responded by advising Finies that preparations for the evaluation of the public entity structure have begun for 2015, but a "possible change of the constitutional relations is not part of that evaluation." The new referendum took place on 18 December 2015. 65% of the turnout voted that they were not happy with the current relationship between Bonaire and the Netherlands.</p><br>
<h3>Currency</h3><br>
<p>In 2011 the BES Islands replaced their currency, the Netherlands Antillean guilder (ANG), with the US dollar rather than replacing it with the euro which is used in the European Netherlands. The decision was based primarily on the islands&#39; needs in relation to tourism and trade. Most countries and territories in the Caribbean use the dollar as their currency or have a currency linked to the dollar as legal tender. The guilder (ANG) has been linked to the dollar for decades with an exchange rate of ANG 1.79=USD 1.00. Adopting the dollar put an end to the dual-currency payment system, and foreign exchange charges.</p><br>
<h3>Taxes</h3><br>
<p>The separate tax regimes for Bonaire, St Eustatius and Saba presents a greater risk of double taxation or double exemption from taxes. In an effort to remove the risk, two plans were introduced. One plan prevents double taxation between the Netherlands (Europe) and the BES Islands while the other prevents double taxation between the BES Islands and third countries. The new regime will generate a total annual tax revenue estimated at $52 million which is equal to the current tax revenues on the three islands. The combined population of the three Islands is approximately 20,000 with about half that many being income-taxpayers.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s economy is mainly based on tourism, taking advantage of its warm, dry climate and natural environment. The island caters to scuba divers and snorkelers, as the surrounding coral reefs are well preserved and easily accessible from the shore. Bonaire has been widely recognized for many years in the diving community as one of the world&#39;s best shore diving destinations.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s Marine Park offers a total of 86 named dive sites, and is home to over 57 species of soft and stony coral and more than 350 recorded fish species. Most resorts and hotels have an on-site dive shop, and other accommodations are affiliated with a dive operation.The license plates carry the logo Divers Paradise (in English).</p><br>
<p>Lac Bay, in the southeastern part of the island, attracts wind surfers from around the world to Bonaire. The shallow Bay is on the windward side of the island, so trade winds are strong and constant. A barrier reef across the mouth of the bay allows windsurfers of all skill levels to select wave conditions they like. Lac Bay is one of the stops in the PWA Windsurfing Freestyle World Cup and has hosted the Prokids IFCA Championship. Five of the PWA&#39;s ten highest ranked freestyle windsurfers are from Bonaire: Kiri Thode, Amado Vrieswijk, Bjorn Saragoza, Tonky Frans, and Taty Frans. In the northern end of Lac Bay is one of the best preserved mangrove forests in the Caribbean, which is popular for kayaking and snorkeling.</p><br>
<p>Bonaire is also a port of call for more than fifteen cruise lines who make more than eighty calls per season at the island. The total passenger capacity for cruise ships in Bonaire is about 185,000.</p><br>
<p>Tourism infrastructure in Bonaire is contemporary and offers a variety of types of accommodations including hotels, full-service resorts, a few small bed and breakfasts, and self-catering vacation rentals of all kinds. Other tourist activities include kite-boarding, mountain-biking, hiking, sailing, charter fishing, boating, and bird-watching. All-in-all tourist expenditures in Bonaire are estimated at $125 million per year.</p><br>
<h3>Other industry</h3><br>
<p>Salt production – Utilizing the naturally low-lying geography and traditional Dutch dyke design, much of Bonaire&#39;s southern half has been made into a giant system of ponds and pools which evaporate seawater to produce salt. Presently operated by Cargill, Bonaire&#39;s solar salt works produces 400,000 tons of industrial grade salt per year. After collection, the salt is then washed and stored in large piles. The salt facility operates its own pier where ships are loaded with salt destined for North American, European and Western Pacific markets. Bonaire&#39;s salt is used mostly in industrial roles.</p><br>
<p>The large condensing ponds which ring the crystallizer basins, called the Pekelmeer, are a natural habitat for numerous species of brine shrimp which in turn feed flocks of hundreds of pink flamingoes and other migratory birds. This is the location of Bonaire&#39;s flamingo sanctuary.</p><br>
<p>Oil storage and shipment – The Bonaire Petroleum Corporation (BOPEC) is a fuel oil storage and transhipment terminal on Bonaire. BOPEC is wholly owned by Venezuelan oil company PDVSA, and functions primarily as a storage facility for multiple grades of refined and non-refined oils from Venezuela and refineries on Curaçao and Aruba. BOPEC also has mixing and blending capabilities for its stored fuels. BOPEC&#39;s #1 pier can receive tankers up to 500,000DWT, which means there are only seven ships in the world that are too big for the BOPEC terminal. A fire at the BOPEC terminal in 2010 is believed to have had a significant impact on Goto Lake and at least one other nearby lagoon.</p><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s first airport was located near Tra&#39;i Montaña Subi Blanku and crossed the current path of Kralendijk to Rincon and was built in 1936. The airport proved to be too small when American soldiers arrived on Bonaire in the second half of 1943. The commander stated that a new airport had to be built. Construction began in December 1943, with the new "Flamingo Airport" opening in 1945. A small terminal was built that was suitable for the number of passengers at the time. This building was used until mid-1976. The airport had received many extensions of both the runway and the terminal itself.</p><br>
<p>Today the airport is known as Flamingo International Airport and is served by a variety of both domestic and international airlines. Services from the US include Delta Air Lines and United Airlines. Airlines providing European service include TUI Netherlands and KLM. Consistent air service from Curaçao is available through Divi Divi Air and Insel Air.</p><br>
<p>The airport is equipped with a fire station, control tower, and hangar. Plans are underway for modifications to the current airport facilities, runway and the fire station.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>The two towns on the island are Kralendijk (the capital) and Rincon.</p><br>
<p>Kralendijk has many suburbs/neighbourhoods, although on an island with such a small population, the distinction is not always clearcut. Kralendijk&#39;s suburbs/neighbourhoods include:</p><br>
<p>*Antriol</p><br>
<p>*Belnem</p><br>
<p>*Hato</p><br>
<p>*Lima</p><br>
<p>*Noord Salina</p><br>
<p>*Nikiboko</p><br>
<p>*Republiek</p><br>
<p>*Sabadeco</p><br>
<p>*Sabana</p><br>
<p>*Santa Barbara</p><br>
<p>*Tera Cora</p><br>
<p>Other smaller settlements include:</p><br>
<p>*Fontein</p><br>
<p>*Lagoen</p><br>
<p>*Sorobon</p><br>
<p>*Spelonk</p><br>
<p>*Wanapa</p><br>
<p>Labra, Ishiri, Kokorobi, Jan Doran, Vlijt, Rigot, Porto Spano, and Kunchi were several smaller towns that had existed in the national park, but were later abandoned.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>Religion in Bonaire is predominantly Roman Catholic (68%) and there are Protestant minorities.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Bonaire&#39;s educational system is patterned after the Dutch system. Early grades are taught solely in Papiamentu, with more and more Dutch being introduced as the grade level progresses.</p><br>
<h2>Languages</h2><br>
<p>Dutch is the official language of Bonaire, as it is part of the Netherlands. According to the 2001 census, it is the main language of 8.8% of the population. The most widely spoken language is the creole language Papiamentu, which is the primary language of 74.7% of the populace and is recognized by the government. Spanish is the main language of 11.8% of the people, English is the primary language of 2.8%, and other languages account for 1.8%.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation and entertainment</h2><br>
<h3>Media</h3><br>
<p>Trans World Radio relay station</p><br>
<p>Trans World Radio operates a radio relay station (PJB3-AM) on Bonaire with a mediumwave transmitter and several shortwave transmitters at {{coord|12|6|23|N|68|17|1|W|type:landmark_region:BQ|name=Bonaire Trans World Radio Station}}. The mediumwave transmitter is the most powerful mediumwave transmitter in America, having operated with as much as a half megawatt.</p><br>
<p>The antenna of the mediumwave transmitter consists of four 231.6-metre-tall masts arranged in a parallelogram.</p><br>
<p>Radio Netherlands relay station</p><br>
<p>Radio Netherlands Worldwide operated a shortwave relay station at {{coord|12|12|48|N|68|19|23|W|type:landmark_region:BQ|name=Radio Netherlands Bonaire Radio Relay Station}}.</p><br>
<p>Because of widespread availability of Internet links providing higher audio quality and more flexibility, shortwave broadcasts by RNW from Bonaire were discontinued and at the end of October 2012, the radio station was closed and installations dismantled.</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>The most popular sports on Bonaire are baseball, windsurfing, athletics, association football, tennis, and volleyball. The Bonaire Football Federation is a member of CONCACAF and the Bonaire Volleyball Federation is an associate member of NORCECA. The Baseball teams play in the Caribbean region of Little league and Pony league. Bonaire was also confirmed as the 218th Table Tennis National association.</p><br>
<p>Wauregan is a village located in the northwestern corner of the town of Plainfield, Connecticut in the United States. Originally a mill village, Wauregan was established around a cotton mill powered by the Quinebaug River.</p><br>
<p>A 90 acre portion of the original village area is listed as a historic district, the Wauregan Historic District, encompassing structures that are directly related to the economic and social activities of the mill. The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Extant buildings in the Wauregan historic district include the Wauregan Mill, an H-shaped building built from local fieldstone; James Atwoods home; the two boarding houses; the company store; and over one hundred workers houses. Architectural styles represented include Greek Revival and Late Victorian architecture.</p><br>
<p>The village is also the core of a census-designated place (CDP) of the same name. The population of the CDP was 1,085 at the 2000 census.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Named for a Mohegan word meaning "Pleasant Valley" Wauregan has a long history as an industrial village. In 1850, Amos D. Lockwood, who was involved with the Quinebaug Mill in Danielsonville, bought the water privileges and surrounding land at Wauregan. After the Wauregan Mills Company charter was approved by the Connecticut legislature in 1853, the first mill was constructed circa 1853-1854. Wauregan Mills was well known for its woven cotton goods, including various types of flannel. Lockwood became the mill&#39;s first agent and recruited James S. Atwood as his superintendent, who became responsible for setting up all machinery and starting production. The principal product of Wauregan was cotton sheeting.</p><br>
<p>James S. Atwood, who purchased the mill from Lockwood in 1858, took particular interest in the village surrounding the mill, making it what he considered to be a "model hamlet" where his factorys employees "could find attractive and comfortable homes near their daily tasks." Under James S. Atwoods leadership, Wauregan began to prosper. The mill was expanded, workers houses were built, and several amenities to Wauregan village life were added. Worker housing in the village included 104 company-owned buildings containing 255 tenement apartments for rental to workers, plus two boarding houses for unmarried workers. A railroad station was built in 1859 and a post office was established in 1860. A company store was built in 1875 and operated with subsidies from the company. Another building in the mill village housed a firehouse, clubhouse, jail, and a reading room and library. A dairy farm and nearby woodlands were also part of the mill operation. Atwood quadrupled the size of the factory, adding the south mill of the front block in 1859 and the entire rear block in 1867-68. The mills labor force was around 750 people, with most living within the village. The mill would eventually reach a capacity of 56,616 spindles and 1,464 looms, with an annual output of eleven million yards.</p><br>
<p>When James S. Atwood died, management of Wauregan Mills was passed on to his twin sons, James Arthur and John Walter Atwood. The Atwood brothers continued to expand and improve the mill, which employed 325 men and 160 women and children as of 1917. The Atwood brothers successfully responded to the competition of the newer, steam-powered mills by producing finer quality cotton goods such as shirting for the USA Marine Corps, and later rayon, instead of the traditional cotton sheeting. Wauregan Mills had a close working relationship with DuPont and was one of the pioneers of synthetic fabric. This partnership led to the development of the technology to produce fabric made of a blend of wool and rayon. In contrast to many larger, corporate-owned mills that were wedded to a particular product, the economic organization of Wauregan Mills enabled its owner/managers to easily diversify and change its product mix to meet new demands resulting from competition from newer textile centers, allowing them to stay profitable through World War II, much longer than many other larger mills.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, Wauregan Mills entered a period of decline from which it never recovered. In the 1950s, free trade policies with Japan, which had modern equipment shipped to them by the USA as part of post-war reconstruction enabling them to produce fine cotton goods much more cheaply, resulted in the death of the New England textile industry as cheap cotton goods flooded the USA market. Wauregan Mills tried to emphasize their capabilities in synthetic blend output and also to reduce labor costs by negotiating with the labor unions to eliminate certain fringe benefits. In August 1955, torrential rains from Hurricanes Connie and Diane caused many dams along the Quinebaug River to break, including the one at Wauregan. The mill was flooded to the level of the first floor ceilings. Workers tried to salvage as much cloth, raw materials and machinery as they could but ultimately the company lost more than $1,500,000. The company borrowed a large sum of money in order to be able to resume production but they didnt have enough working capital to repair and modernize their facilities. In 1957, James Arthur Atwood III, grandson of James S. Atwood, and the rest of the company directors decided to cease all operations resulting in the companys final closing.</p><br>
<p>James Arthur Atwood III was responsible for disposing of the company&#39;s assets to pay off their creditors. Land, the water company, and other properties were sold, and the mill rented to various tenants over the next decade. American Standard was one of the early buyers and built a manufacturing facility in Wauregan soon after the Wauregan company closed. All the debts of Wauregan Mill were eventually paid off in 1970. Since 1974, C&M Corporation, a vertically integrated manufacturer of electrical cable, has owned and occupied the former Wauregan Mills complex, where it operates a production facility and maintains its corporate headquarters.</p><br>
<p>The village is described as looking "much as it did in the 1850s." The Wauregan Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The village is centered on the former site of the mill on the east bank of the Quinebaug River, near where modern Route 205 crosses the river. The village extends eastward from the river up a gently rising slope towards Route 12 located at the crest of a ridge. The mill workers houses are located along Walnut and Chestnut streets just east of the mill site, while the supervisors houses and the company store are located further east (and further up in elevation). The mill owners&#39; houses and the church are even further up and east. The historic district covers an area of about 90 acre, roughly bounded on the east by Grove Street, Fountain Street, Route 12, Route 205, and South Chestnut Street; on the south by Third Street; on the west by South Walnut Street, a westward extension of First Street, and the Quinebaug River; and on the north by the extension of the east-west portion of North Chestnut Street. The boundaries of the historic district exclude a large tract of open land to the north that the Wauregan company once owned. The district includes 114 buildings and structures.</p><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, the Wauregan CDP has a total area of 0.9 square miles (2.4 km) (or 576 acres) of which 0.9 square miles (2.3 km) is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km) (2.17%) is water. The CDP includes, in addition to the original village, the tract of open land to the north, newer residential development to the south, and modern commercial properties along Route 12.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of the census of 2000, there were 1,085 people, 378 households, and 288 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,211.5 people per square mile (465.5/km). There were 410 housing units at an average density of 457.8 per square mile (175.9/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 94.56% White, 1.29% African American, 0.46% Native American, 0.55% Asian, 0.65% from other races, and 2.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.87% of the population.</p><br>
<p>There were 378 households out of which 50.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 19.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.8% were non-families. 16.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.15.</p><br>
<p>In the CDP, the population was spread out with 34.0% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 34.0% from 25 to 44, 15.6% from 45 to 64, and 7.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.4 males.</p><br>
<p>The median income for a household in the CDP was $33,846, and the median income for a family was $30,795. Males had a median income of $33,224 versus $24,821 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $15,311. About 3.6% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.</p><br>
<h2>Notable buildings</h2><br>
<p>Frobisher Bay is a relatively large inlet of the Labrador Sea in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada. It is located in the southeastern corner of Baffin Island. Its length is about 230 km and its width varies from about 40 km at its outlet into the Labrador Sea to roughly 20 km towards its inner end.</p><br>
<p>The capital of Nunavut, Iqaluit (known as Frobisher Bay until 1987), lies near the innermost end of the bay.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Frobisher Bay has a tapered shape formed by two flanking peninsulas, the Hall Peninsula to the northeast, and the Meta Incognita Peninsula to the southwest. The Bays funnellike shape ensures that the tidal variance at Iqaluit each day is about 7 to 11 m. This shape is due to the large outlet glacier centred over Foxe Basin during the Pleistocene glaciation, which gouged the Bays basin, now flooded by the sea.</p><br>
<p>Within Frobisher Bay itself are a number of bays, inlets and sounds. Among these are Wayne Bay and Ward Inlet (up towards the far northwestern end), and also Newell Sound, Leach Bay and Kneeland Bay (along the southwest shore). Hamlen Bay, Newton Fiord, Royer Cove and Waddell Bay are to be found in the northeast shore. Indeed, Frobisher Bays whole coastline is marked with innumerable narrow inlets into which flow many small streams. There are high cliffs on both shores, rising to roughly 330 m on the northeast shore, and twice that on the southwest shore as a result of the tilting of the earths crust locally during the early Tertiary.</p><br>
<p>Frobisher Bay is also studded with islands. These include Hill Island and Faris Island near Iqaluit, Pugh, Pike, Fletcher and Bruce Islands at the mouth of Wayne Bay, Augustus Island in Ward Inlet, and Chase, McLean, Gabriel and Nouyarn Islands towards the Bay&#39;s mouth.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Frobisher Bay is named for the English navigator Sir Martin Frobisher, who, during his search for the Northwest Passage in 1576, became the first European to visit it. Until Hall&#39;s voyage in 1861, the Bay was thought by Europeans to be a strait separating Baffin Island from another island.</p><br>
<p>The first Church of England service recorded on North American soil was a celebration of Holy Communion at Frobisher Bay in the last days of August or early September 1578. The Anglican Church of Canadas Prayer Book fixes the day of commemoration as September 3. The chaplain on Frobishers voyage was " Maister Wolfall (probably Robert Wolfall), minister and preacher, who had been charged by Queen Elizabeth to serve God twice a day."</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>"Frobisher Bay" is a James Gordon song, featured in the TV program Canadian Idol.</p><br>
<p>Carnuntum  was a Roman Legionary Fortress or castrum legionarium and also headquarters of the Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province. It also became a large city of 50,000 inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>Its impressive remains are situated on the Danube in Lower Austria halfway between Vienna and Bratislava in the "Carnuntum Archaeological Park" extending over an area of 10 km² near today&#39;s villages of Petronell-Carnuntum and Bad Deutsch-Altenburg.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Military History</h3><br>
<p>Carnuntum first occurs in history during the reign of Augustus (6 AD), when Tiberius made it his base of operations as a Roman fort in the campaigns against Maroboduus (Marbod).</p><br>
<h4>Legio XV Apollinaris</h4><br>
<p>Significant Romanisation occurred when the town was selected as the garrison of the Legio XV Apollinaris before 14 AD. A few years later, it became the centre of the Roman fortifications along the Danube from Vindobona (now Vienna) to Brigetio (Ó-Szőny). According to Tacitus, the emperor Claudius ordered the governor of Pannonia "to have a legion with an auxiliary on the bank of the Danube" to protect the losers of a dispute between Germanic tribes (the Quadi and Marcomanni) and deter the victors from the temptation to invade Pannonia. To this period (about 50 AD) belongs the auxiliary castrum of a cavalry ala 1.5 km south-west of the legionary fortress.</p><br>
<p>The legion was sent to Syria and possibly Armenia by Nero in 62 or 63.</p><br>
<p>In 71 AD, after several campaigns, the Legio XV Apollinaris returned to Carnuntum and rebuilt its fortress. The legion fought in the Trajan&#39;s Dacian Wars the main body of the legion remained in Pannonia. In 115 war with Parthia broke out and the legion was sent to the east.</p><br>
<h4>Legio X Gemina</h4><br>
<p>Legio X Gemina was sent to Carnuntum for a few years from about 63 AD. During the brief reign of Galba (68-69), it was transferred back to Hispania.</p><br>
<h4>Legio VII Gemina</h4><br>
<p>Legio VII Gemina, newly founded by Galba in 68 AD, was allocated to Carnuntum until about 71 AD after his defeat by Vespasian.</p><br>
<h4>Legio XIV Gemina</h4><br>
<p>In 117/8 AD, Carnuntum became the permanent quarters of Legio XIV Gemina where it stayed for three centuries until the frontier collapsed in 430.</p><br>
<h3>History of the City</h3><br>
<p>In Roman times Carnuntum had a history as a major trading centre for amber, brought from the north to traders who sold it in Italy; the main arm of the Amber Road crossed the Danube at Carnuntum.</p><br>
<p>As the capital of Pannonia Superior it was made a municipium by Hadrian (Aelium Carnuntum). Its importance is indicated by the fact that Marcus Aurelius resided there for three years (172-175) during the war against the Marcomanni, and wrote part of his Meditations there. Also Septimius Severus, at the time governor of Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor there by his soldiers (193), to replace Emperor Pertinax, who had been murdered.</p><br>
<p>In the Severan dynasty (193-235) Carnuntum experienced an economic boom, the canabae reaching its maximum size. Caracalla elevated it to colony status as Septimia Colonia Aurelia Antoniana. During the reign of Gallienus, the Pannonians rebelled by electing the usurper Regalianus who established a mint whose coins depicted him and his wife Sulpicia Dryantilla. He was killed shortly afterwards by his own soldiers probably at Carnuntum.</p><br>
<p>In 308 during the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy the Emperor emeritus Diocletian chaired a historic meeting (the conference of Carnuntum) with his co-emperors Maximian and Galerius in Carnuntum to solve the rising tensions within the tetrarchy. It brought about freedom of religion for the Roman Empire.</p><br>
<p>In 374 it was destroyed by Germanic invaders the Quadi and Iazyges. Although partly restored by Valentinian I, it never regained its former importance, and Vindobona became the chief military centre. During the Barbarian Invasions, Carnuntum was eventually abandoned and used as a cemetery and source of building material for building projects elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, its remains became buried and forgotten.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>The "Archaeological Park Carnuntum" comprises three sites:</p><br>
<p>Museum, Heidentor and amphitheatre near Petronell</p><br>
<p>Excavations in the garden of Petronell Castle</p><br>
<p>Museum Carnuntinum</p><br>
<h3>Civilian city</h3><br>
<p>The remains of the civilian city extend around the village Petronell-Carnuntum. There are several places to see in the city: Roman city quarter in the open-air museum, palace ruins, amphitheatre, and "Heidentor".</p><br>
<p>The Roman city ruins are exposed in the open-air museum directly in the present village. One of the ancient houses, called the House of Lucius, has been rebuilt using traditional techniques. It was opened to the public on 1 June 2006.</p><br>
<p>The (forum) was next to the palace ruins, also referred to as the large public baths.</p><br>
<p>Some way outside the city was a large amphitheatre, which had room for about 15,000 spectators.</p><br>
<p>A plate with an inscription found at the site claims that this building was the 4th largest amphitheatre in the whole Roman Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Heidentor</h3><br>
<p>Between 354 AD and 361 AD a huge triumphal monument was erected next to the camp and city. Contemporary reports suggest that Emperor Constantius II had it built to commemorate his victories. When the remains of Carnuntum disappeared after the Migration Period the monument remained as an isolated building in a natural landscape and led Medieval people to believe it was the tomb of a pagan giant. Hence, they called it "Heidentor" (pagan gate).</p><br>
<h3>Fortress</h3><br>
<p>The only remaining building of the fortress is an amphitheatre, located just outside the fortress. Today, a small adjacent museum shows the history of gladiators.</p><br>
<h3>Gladiator school</h3><br>
<p>In September 2011 aerial photographs and ground-penetrating radar led to the discovery of the typical contours of an ancient Roman gladiator school to the south of the Roman settlement, a ludus rivaling the Ludus Magnus school and covering an area of some 3,350 sqyd. This approach of aerial photography and modern remote sensing has allowed for a detailed virtual recreation of the gladiator school. The aerial photographs used in the recreation were acquired with a radio-controlled Microdrone md4-1000 quadrocopter, which captured a sufficient amount of photographs to create an overlap among them. Then, using a technique called Structure from Motion (SfM), a 3D model of the school was calculated using the sharpest images.</p><br>
<p>The school, along with the amphitheater, was located outside of the town&#39;s walls. The school had training grounds, bathing facilities, an assembly hall and dormitories for the gladiators. The school also had a courtyard which housed a training area for gladiators. The school was attached to an open campus which was most likely used for chariot races.</p><br>
<h3>Museum Carnuntinum</h3><br>
<p>The archaeological museum Carnuntinum, which is situated in the village of Bad Deutsch-Altenburg on the river Danube, exhibits important archeological finds from the ancient city.</p><br>
<h2>In fiction</h2><br>
<p>Völkisch author Guido von List was so impressed with the ruins that he based his first novel on the subject. Another novel, Household Gods, by Harry Turtledove and Judith Tarr, is set in Carnuntum during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.</p><br>
<p>In Frank Tallis&#39; crime novel Vienna Blood both Guido von List and his novel Carnuntum appear, together with an eponymous opera based on the novel.</p><br>
<p>Hekla, or Hecla, is a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland with a height of 1,491 m. Hekla is one of Iceland&#39;s most active volcanoes; over 20 eruptions have occurred in and around the volcano since 874. During the Middle Ages, Europeans called the volcano the "Gateway to Hell".</p><br>
<p>Hekla is part of a volcanic ridge, 40 km long. The most active part of this ridge, a fissure about 5.5 km long named Heklugjá, is considered to be within Hekla proper. Hekla looks rather like an overturned boat, with its keel being a series of craters, two of which are generally the most active.</p><br>
<p>The volcanos frequent large eruptions have covered much of Iceland with tephra, and these layers can be used to date eruptions of Icelands other volcanoes. Approximately 10% of the tephra created in Iceland in the last thousand years has come from Hekla, amounting to 5 km. Cumulatively, the volcano has produced one of the largest volumes of lava of any in the world in the last millennium, around 8 km.</p><br>
<h2>Reputation</h2><br>
<p>In Icelandic Hekla is the word for a short hooded cloak, which may relate to the frequent cloud cover on the summit. An early Latin source refers to the mountain as Mons Casule.</p><br>
<p>After the eruption of 1104, stories, probably spread deliberately through Europe by Cistercian monks, told that Hekla was the gateway to Hell. The Cistercian monk Herbert of Clairvaux wrote in his De Miraculis (without naming Hekla): A poem by the monk Benedeit from circa 1120 about the voyages of Saint Brendan mentions Hekla as the prison of Judas.</p><br>
<p>In the Flatey Book Annal it was recorded that during the 1341 eruption, people saw large and small birds flying in the mountain&#39;s fire which were taken to be souls.</p><br>
<p>In the 16th century Caspar Peucer wrote that the Gates of Hell could be found in "the bottomless abyss of Hekla Fell". The belief that Hekla was the gate to Hell persisted until the 19th century. There is still a legend that witches gather on Hekla during Easter.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Hekla has a morphological type between that of a crater row and stratovolcano (built from mixed lava and tephra eruptions) sited at a rift-transform junction in the area where the south Iceland seismic zone and eastern volcanic zone meet. The unusual form of Hekla is found on very few volcanoes around the world, notably Callaqui in Chile. Hekla is situated on a long volcanic ridge of which the 5.5 km Heklugjá fissure is considered Hekla proper. This fissure opens along its entire length during major eruptions and is fed by a magma reservoir estimated to have a top 4 km below the surface with centroid 2.5 km lower.</p><br>
<p>The tephra produced by its eruptions is high in fluorine, which is poisonous to animals. Hekla&#39;s basaltic andesite lava generally has a SiO2 content of over 54%, compared to the 45–50% of other nearby transitional alkaline basalt eruptions (see TAS classification).</p><br>
<p>It is the only Icelandic volcano to produce calc-alkaline lavas.</p><br>
<p>Phenocrysts in Hekla&#39;s lava can contain plagioclase, pyroxene, titanomagnetite, olivine & apatite.</p><br>
<p>When not erupting Hekla is often covered with snow and small glaciers; it is also unusually aseismic with activity only starting 30–80 minutes before an eruption. Hekla is located on the mid-ocean ridge, a diverging plate boundary.</p><br>
<p>Hekla is closely studied today for parameters such as strain, tilt, deformation and other movement and seismic activity. Earthquakes in the volcano&#39;s vicinity are generally below magnitude 2 while it is dormant and magnitude 3 when erupting.</p><br>
<h2>Eruption history</h2><br>
<p>The earliest recorded eruption of Hekla took place in 1104. Since then there have been between twenty and thirty considerable eruptions, with the mountain sometimes remaining active for periods of six years with little pause. Eruptions in Hekla are varied and difficult to predict. Some are very short (a week to ten days) whereas others can stretch into months and years (the 1947 eruption started 29 March 1947 and ended April 1948). But there is a general correlation: the longer Hekla goes dormant, the larger and more catastrophic its opening eruption will be. The most recent eruption was on 26 February 2000.</p><br>
<h3>Prehistoric eruptions</h3><br>
<p>One of the largest Holocene eruptions in Iceland was the Hekla 3 (or H3) eruption circa 1000 BC,</p><br>
<p>Unless otherwise stated eruption dates are from Global Volcanism Program, other sources disagree.</p><br>
<p>Hekla 3, 4, and 5 produced huge amounts of rhyolitic ash and tephra, covering 80% of Iceland and providing useful date markers in soil profiles in other parts of Europe such as Orkney, Scandinavia, and elsewhere. H3 and H4 produced the largest layers of tephra in Iceland since the last Ice Age.</p><br>
<h3>1104 to 1878</h3><br>
<p>Hekla had been dormant for at least 250 years when it erupted explosively in 1104 (probably in the autumn), covering over half of Iceland (55,000 km) with 1.2 km of rhyodacitic tephra. This was the second largest tephra eruption in the country in historical times with a VEI of 5. Farms upwind of the volcano in Þjórsárdalur valley (15 km away), Hrunamannaafréttur (50 km away) and Lake Hvítárvatn (70 km away) were abandoned because of the damage. The eruption caused Hekla to become famous throughout Europe.</p><br>
<p>A VEI 4 eruption began on 19 January 1158 producing over 0.15 km of lava and 0.2 km of tephra. It is likely to be the source of the Efrahvolshraun lava on Hekla&#39;s west.</p><br>
<p>The VEI 3 eruption began on 4 December.</p><br>
<p>The VEI 2 eruption and the 1206 eruption distributed around 0.24 km of tephra mainly to the northeast.</p><br>
<p>This VEI 4 eruption, which started on 11 July and lasted for a year, was the second largest tephra eruption of Hekla since Iceland was settled, covering 30,000 km</p><br>
<p>of land with 0.31 km of tephra. Over 0.5 km of lava was also expelled. The tephra caused significant damage to the settlements of Skagafjörður and Fljót, leading to over 500 deaths that winter.</p><br>
<p>The material output from this eruption had SiO2 levels of between 56% and 64%, and apart from a slight abundance of olivine the lava, was typical of Hekla eruptions.</p><br>
<p>A small eruption (VEI 3) started on 19 May and deposited around 5×10 m of tephra over the areas west and southwest of Hekla, leading to many cattle deaths, probably mainly from fluorosis.</p><br>
<p>In late 1389 Hekla erupted again (VEI 3), starting with a large ejection of tephra to the southeast. Later "the eruption fissure moved itself out of the mountain proper and into the woods a little above Skard". Skard and another nearby farm were destroyed by a large lava flow that now forms the 12.5 km Nordurhraun. In total around 0.3 km of lava and 5×10 m of tephra were produced.</p><br>
<p>An eruption may have occurred around 1440 at Raudölder; despite being close to Hekla this is not classed as an eruption of Hekla based on the SiO2 content of the lava.</p><br>
<p>Details of the 1510 eruption were not recorded until a century later. It started on 25 July and was particularly violent (VEI 4), firing volcanic bombs as far as Vördufell, 40 km west. Tephra was deposited over Rangárvellir, Holt and Landeyjar, 0.2 km in total. A man in Landsveit was killed.</p><br>
<p>A VEI 4 eruption began on 3 January and lasted for over 6 months, with 0.15 km of tephra being deposited to the south-southeast, damaging Mýrdalur.</p><br>
<p>A small (VEI 3) eruption began on 8 May 1636 and lasted for over a year. The 5×10 m of tephra from the eruption damaged pasture to the northeast causing death of livestock.</p><br>
<p>Starting 13 January and lasting for over 7 months the eruption was one of Hekla&#39;s most destructive (VEI 4). Initially tephra was produced at 60,000 m·s, 0.18 km during the entire eruption, which also caused lahars and tsunami. The tephra was deposited to the northwest, destroying and damaging farms and woodland in Þjórsárdalur, Land, Hreppar and Biskupstungur. Fine ash from the eruption reached Norway. There was damage to wildlife with significant numbers of trout, salmon, ptarmigan and farm animals dying.</p><br>
<p>A very small eruption, possibly only VEI 1, took place on 2 April 1725, producing flows of lava from locations around Hekla which have since been covered by later lava flows. These eruptions are not classed as of Hekla itself based on the SiO2 content of the lava.</p><br>
<p>The eruption of 1766 was large (VEI 4) and produced the second largest lava flow, 1.3 km covering 65 km, and third largest tephra volume, 0.24 km, of any Icelandic volcano during the inhabited era. The eruption started at around 3:30 am on 5 April 1766 and ceased in May 1768. Initially a 2–4 cm layer of tephra was deposited over Austur-Húnavatnssýsla and Skagafjördur, resulting in the deaths of both fish and livestock. Rangárvellir, Land and Hreppar also suffered damage. During the eruption up to 0.5 m lava bombs were thrown 15–20 km away, and flooding was caused by the sudden melting of snow and ice on Hekla&#39;s slopes.</p><br>
<p>Hekla was dormant for more than sixty years before 1845, when it suddenly burst forth on 2 September at 9 am:</p><br>
<p>The eruption ceased around 5 April 1846. Initially in this VEI 4 eruption tephra was produced at 20,000 m·s. The tephra deposition (0.17 km) was mainly to the east-southeast; immediately to the east of Hekla the layer was 20–40 cm deep. Fine ash was carried to the Faroes, Shetland and Orkney. Lava flows to the west and northwest covered an area of 25 km with 0.63 km of lava. Large quantities of dark ash were deposited over pasture in the same directions leading to many livestock deaths through fluorosis for the next two years.</p><br>
<p>A small eruption (VEI 2) occurred between 27 February 1878 and April 1878, around 10 km east of Hekla, and produced 0.2 km of lava from two parallel fissures covering 15.5 km.</p><br>
<h3>1913 to 1948</h3><br>
<p>A small eruption (VEI 2) occurred between 25 April 1913 and 18 May 1913, around 10 km east of Hekla, and caused large fissures at Mundafell and Lambafit which produced 3.8 and 6.3 km of lava respectively.</p><br>
<p>The VEI 4 eruption started on 29 March 1947 and ended on 21 April 1948. It is likely that this was both the second greatest lava eruption of Hekla whilst Iceland was inhabited and the second greatest lava eruption in the world in the period 1900–1970. A total lava volume 0.8 km was produced with 0.21 km of tephra. The height of Hekla was 1,447 m before the eruption, increasing to a maximum of 1,503 m, before dropping to 1,491 m subsequently.</p><br>
<p>The eruption occurred over a century after the last eruption of Hekla proper, the longest dormant period since 1104. Before the eruption the volcano had been visible from the surrounding area but nothing remarkable was noticed. The eruption occurred at 6:41 am ± 3 min with a loud roar; later eruptions could be heard throughout Iceland. An earthquake at 6:50 am measured 6 on the Mercalli intensity scale and increased the eruption intensity until it covered a 4 km fissure on the ridge. The cloud from the eruption had ascended to a height of 30 km by 7:08 am, the wind then carried it southwards towards Eyjafjallajökull, turning it black. Pumice first landed on Fljótshlíð at around 7:10 am, and tephra and ash continued falling until it formed a 3–10 cm layer. A lava bomb that landed 32 km from Hekla was 0.5 m across and weighed 20 kg. Between Vatnafjöll and Hekla, a layer of tephra up to a metre thick was deposited, including bombs with a diameter larger than 0.5 m. Bombs with areas of 50 m were dropped onto the slopes of Hekla, up to 1 km away. 51 hours after the eruption had started, ash fell on Helsinki, Finland, having covered 2,860 km in this time.</p><br>
<p>The initial tephra production rate in the first 30 minutes of the eruption was 75,000 m·s, dropping to 22,000 m·s for the next half-hour. The initial phase produced 0.18 km of tephra, equating to 4.5×10 m of solid rock, covering 3,130 km of land and sea. 98 farms were damaged by the eruption, but only 2 were no longer farmed in 1970. A large volunteer effort was mobilized to clear the tephra – around 1000 man-days by the end of July. The eruption produced around 3 ML of water (snowmelt and directly from the fissure) which caused flooding of the Ytri Rangá river.</p><br>
<p>In the first 20 hours of the eruption approximately 3,500 m·s of lava was produced from the fissure, dividing into various branches and covering 12–15 km. On the second day, 8 distinct eruption columns were discernible. A crater formed at 860 m called the Lava Crater (Hraungígur), producing a constant flow of lava. Another crater named the Shoulder Crater (Axlargígur) produced a column of smoke every 10 seconds together with loud explosions that created visible compression waves in the smoke. By the fourth, fifth, and sixth days, the eruption was greatly diminished, and only the shoulder and summit craters were erupting explosively.</p><br>
<p>The explosive eruption increased in strength from 9–12 April and then from 28 April it reduced again. On 3 May, the volcano stopped throwing out lava in sudden explosions from its craters and changed to continuously ejecting tephra and ash for long periods, until early June when this reduced. On 2 September, the Shoulder Crater had a 960 m circumference at its top and the Summit Crater a 700 m circumference at its highest point, 90 m above the ridge. Sandy tephra and ash fell over Iceland in May and June, sometimes making it dark in the daytime near Hekla. The tephra caused fluorine poisoning of grazing sheep, making them unable to walk. That winter more craters formed, building up cones. Explosive activity had ceased six months after the first eruption. Lava flowed from the Lava Crater continuously during the eruption, starting at a rate of over 100 m·s, dropping to 5–10 m·s in April and early May at a speed of around 20 cm·s before increasing, eventually reaching 150 m·s at the end of June and at similar levels until mid-July with a peak flow speed of 2–2.5 m·s. From there it gradually decreased to under 10 m·s in November. Initially the lava comprised 57–58% SiO2 and 11% Fe2O3, from the time of peak flow onwards this changed to 54% SiO2 and 13.5% Fe2O3.</p><br>
<p>The lava river sometimes ran through lava tubes before emerging again. The lava front had a height of up to 15 m. On 15 and 16 June, a branch of lava flow to the south of Melfell traveled over 1 km in 30 hours before slowing and stopping by 21 June, 7.8 km from the Lava Crater. The longest lava stream produced was 8 km long and stopped in Stóraskógsbotnar. A scientist filming one of the lava streams on 2 November was hit by a block of lava and was killed.</p><br>
<p>The lava flow stopped after 13 months on 21 April, having covered 40 km and with a maximum depth of 100 m. The lava beds produced were mainly the ʻAʻā lava type with Pāhoehoe and lava a budella (lava tubes) areas. In April and May 1948 CO2 emitted from cracks in the ground pooled in hollows near to Hekla, killing 15 sheep and some wild animals and birds. In total 24,000 tonnes of CO2 was emitted. Ditches were dug by farmers to drain these hollows, and the CO2 emission had stopped by the end of the year.</p><br>
<h3>1970 to 1991</h3><br>
<p>The 1970 eruption of Hekla started at 9:23 pm on 5 May 1970 and lasted until 5 July. It had a VEI of 3 and produced 0.2 km of lava covering an area of 18.5 km and 6.6×10 m of tephra, deposited over an area of 40,000 km, mainly to the northwest of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The main Hekla fissure only erupted at its far southwest end, most of the eruption was from other fissures nearby. The eruption stopped in the south-southwest on 10 May and in Hlídargígar on 20 May, but a new fissure opened on the same day and lava flowed from this until 5 July. The lava was andesite containing olivine, similar to the lava produced later in the eruption of 1947.</p><br>
<p>Before the eruption, a greater than normal amount of snow melting had occurred, indicating the volcano was heating up. Earth tremors began at 8:48 pm on the evening of the eruption; the largest had a magnitude of 4. The eruption started weakly at 9:23 pm IMT ± 2 min before increasing in power. The first pumice fell on Búrfell power station, 15 km away, at 9:35 pm causing people to evacuate. The eruption seems to have started in 2 locations at the same time – to the Shoulder crater&#39;s south-southwest and below the Lava Crater. At 10:30 pm a crater at 780 m was producing a lava column which reached an altitude of around 1000 m. During the night a 700 m high lava fountain was thrown up from the main crater. A 500 m long fissure starting below the Lava Crater opened and lava fountains and other lava flows emanated from it. One hour into the eruption, a new 400 m fissure opened to the northeast, producing two main lava fountains, and shortly after another adjoining fissure opened producing lava fountains to a height of 500 m. At around midnight, another fissure opened northwest of the Lava Crater, later hurling an over 300 m long lava fountain, 200–300 m into the air. By midnight lava had already covered over 1 km and this extended to 7.5 km by next morning implying a flow rate of around 1500 m·s.</p><br>
<p>For the first two hours, tephra was produced at the rate of 10,000 ms. The cloud from the eruption, which had reached 53,000 ft by 10:10 pm, caused a lightning storm. The tephra was transported northwards by the wind, causing the sky to turn black in places – 190 km away at Blönduós tephra fell from midnight until 2 am, and ash fell on a trawler 330 km away at 2 am. Icelanders sampled the tephra fall in their locality by putting a plate outside to capture everything that fell onto it. This, and other measurements, showed the area covered was long and narrow with the 1 mm contour (an equivalent of 8 tonnes per hectare) extending to the north coast.</p><br>
<p>By 5:30 on 6 May, the lava flow measured 4 km long. Many lava bombs were found near the main crater, one had an area of 6 m and a likely weight of 12 tons. Xenoliths formed around 2% of the material produced by the craters. These were of rock types including basalt, andesite, ignimbrite and sedimentary rock.</p><br>
<p>The eruption became stronger at Skjólkvíar on 12 May, with columns of steam attaining a height of 2500 m. The eruption intensity then gradually reduced until it stopped on 20 May. The lava field then had an area of 5.8 km. Later that day a 900 m long fissure opened 1 km north of the main Hlídargígar crater. That night it contained 17 lava fountains, each 20–50 m in height. By the evening of the next day, 10–12 craters had formed, each throwing pieces of lava 50–100 m in the air. This row of craters was named Öldugígar. Gradually the number of active craters decreased, the most active of these built a cone 100 m higher than the level of the ridge. Lava flowed from its base until mid-June when the lava cut through the north crater wall. The larger cones produced more tephra, occasionally with lightning within the tephra cloud. By 5 July, the eruption had stopped.</p><br>
<p>During eruptions of Hekla, fluorine is produced and sticks to the surfaces of the grains of tephra. Fine grains can have a fluorine content of 350 ppm, and fluorine poisoning can start in sheep at a diet with fluorine content of 25 ppm. At 250 ppm, death can occur within a few days. In 1783, 79% of the Icelandic sheep stock were killed, probably as a result of fluorosis caused by the eruption of Lakagígar. Some of the ash produced in this eruption had a fluorine content of 0.2%, and two days after the eruption contaminated grass had a dry weight content of up to 0.4% fluorine. 450 farms and 95,000 sheep were effected by the eruption. Some sheep were kept inside and fed on hay or moved, but other farmers were forced to graze their flocks outside.</p><br>
<p>This VEI 3 eruption started at 13:28 on 17 August 1980 and lasted until 20 August 1980. It was a mixed eruption producing a lava volume of 0.12 km and a tephra volume of 5.8×10 m. The fissure opened along a 7 km length. Shortly before the eruption started a steam column was produced; eventually the eruption column reached a height of 15 km. The main tephra deposits were to the north-northeast and lasted for around 2 hours. Deposits were 20 cm thick 10 km from the summit, decreasing to less than 1 mm at the coast 230 km away.</p><br>
<p>Lava was initially produced from close to the summit, spreading to other parts of the fissure and covering an area of 22 km in around 24 hours. The last scoria were seen on the morning of 20 August. This was an unusual eruption both in the short time since the previous eruption – the shortest since 1104, and the length – previous eruptions had lasted from 2 months to 2 years rather than just 3 days.</p><br>
<p>The 1981 eruption, which is regarded as being a continuation of the previous year&#39;s eruption, began at 3 am on 9 April 1981, had a VEI of 2 and produced 3×10 m of lava, lasting until 16 April 1981. The eruption threw ash to a height of 6.6 km, and a new crater formed at the summit from which 3 lava flows originated. These extended to a maximum of 4.5 km from the volcano, covering 5–6 km.</p><br>
<p>A VEI 3 eruption occurred from 17 January 1991 to 11 March 1991, producing 0.15 km of lava and 2×10 m of tephra. The eruption, which was preceded by sulphurous smells and earthquakes, started as a Plinian eruption, producing an ash cloud reaching an altitude of 11.5 km within 10 minutes which had travelled over 200 km north-northeast to the coast within 3 hours. The eruption then began producing andesitic lava, the flows eventually covering an area of 23 km to an average depth of 6–7 m. Initially, part of the Heklugja fissure and other fissures erupted with lava fountains reaching 300 m in height. By the second day, the activity stopped in all but one fissure where the main crater formed. During these 2 days, 800 m·s of lava were produced, slowing to between 1 ms and 14 m·s for most of the eruption. This low viscosity lava had a SiO2 content of approximately 54%.</p><br>
<h3>2000</h3><br>
<p>The most recent eruption was relatively short; it started at 18:18 on 26 February 2000 and lasted until 8 March. It was a VEI 3 eruption producing a lava volume of 0.189 km DRE / 0.29 km and 10 m of tephra. The eruption went through four phases:</p><br>
<p>initial explosive stage</p><br>
<p>fire fountains</p><br>
<p>bursts of Strombolian eruption</p><br>
<p>effusion of lava</p><br>
<p>Eruption activity was at a maximum in the first hour, and by the first night the fissure on Hekla had opened to a length of 6–7 km. The steam column rose to a height of almost 15 km, and ash was transported to Grímsey. During this eruption, a NASA DC-8 aeroplane accidentally flew through the plume with all instruments switched on, resulting in unprecedented measurement of a young volcanic plume.</p><br>
<p>Up until this eruption, it had been assumed that Hekla was incapable of producing the most dangerous of volcanic phenomena, the pyroclastic flow. In January 2003, however, a team from the Norvol Institute in Reykjavík, under the leadership of Dr. Ármann Höskuldsson, reported that they found traces of a pyroclastic flow, roughly 5 km long, stretching down the side of the mountain. This will call for a reappraisal of volcanic eruptions of the basic rock type, which up to now were generally thought not to produce large pyroclastic flows. It will also require that the public and curious spectators who always rush to the scene at the start of a new outbreak, be kept much further away from the volcanic activity than was thought necessary during previous outbreaks.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Hekla area was once forested. Forest and some grasses are much more resilient to ash and pumice fall than low vegetation, but the combined effect of human habitation and the volcanic activity has left an unstable surface very susceptible to erosion. Hekluskógar, a 90,000 ha reforesting project is attempting to restore the birch and willow woodland to the slopes of Hekla, starting with soil fertilisation and grass sowing. This would stabilize the large areas of volcanic ash, help to reduce wind erosion of the frost heaved surface, slow drainage rates and hence water erosion, and ultimately increase biodiversity. It is the largest reforestation of its type in Europe. After an eruption, almost all of the safe sites on new lava flows are colonised by mosses within 20 years expanding to a homogeneous layer up to 20 cm thick within 50 years.</p><br>
<h2>Sport and recreation</h2><br>
<p>Hekla is a popular destination for hiking. Following the most recent eruption the path goes most of the way to the summit; the walk takes 3 to 4 hours.</p><br>
<p>In spring, skiing is possible on short routes around the rim of the crater. In summer, there are easy (F) mountaineering routes also around the crater rim, and it is possible to snowcat to the top in winter. The volcano can be reached using the buses to Landmannalaugar 30 km further east, and it is possible to stay or camp at farms in the area.</p><br>
<p>A visitor centre, The Hekla Center at Leirubakki Farm, opened in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Hekla has featured in artistic works since the time of its medieval infamy.</p><br>
<h3>Films</h3><br>
<p>In the Spanish apocalyptic science fiction film, Los Últimos Días (2013), some news reporters speculate that three recent eruptions of Mount Hekla could have caused the spreading form of agoraphobia that kills affected people who go outside.</p><br>
<h3>Food</h3><br>
<p>In the Boston, Massachusetts area, Hekla pastries can be found – large, upside-down cinnamon rolls with white sugar icing spooned over the top to look like the snow-topped volcano.</p><br>
<h3>Literature</h3><br>
<p>The British poet William Blake showed Winter being banished to Hekla in To Winter, one of the works from his Poetical Sketches.</p><br>
<p>In To Lie With Lions, by Dorothy Dunnett, a party of merchants visiting Iceland in the year 1471 is threatened by an imminent eruption of both Hekla and Katla.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Hekla is referenced in the third chapter of Herman Melvilles novel Moby Dick, in EE Ryans The Odd Saga of the American and a Curious Icelandic Flock, and in the final chapters of Joan Aiken&#39;s novel Is.</p><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>The piece Hekla, Op 52 (1964) by Icelandic composer Jón Leifs, has been called the "loudest classical music of all time". The requirements for a performance of Hekla include four sets of rocks hit with hammers, steel plates, anvils, sirens, cannons, metal chains, choir, a large orchestra, and organ.</p><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>A small Danish cruiser launched in 1890 was named Hekla; it was scrapped in 1955.</p><br>
<p>A Danish steamer called Hekla also saw combat in the First Schleswig War.</p><br>
<p>Icelandair named one of their aircraft after Hekla.</p><br>
<p>There have been several ships of the Royal Navy named HMS Hecla</p><br>
<h3>Organizations</h3><br>
<p>In October 2011 a German left-wing militant group called the Hekla-Empfangskomitee (Hekla Reception Committee) set at least 17 incendiary devices on railways in the Berlin area, with 2 of them going off.</p><br>
<p>The DBU Copenhagen football club Boldklubben Hekla play at Hekla Park.</p><br>
<h3>Entertainers</h3><br>
<p>Heklina, a San Francisco drag queen performer and promoter with Icelandic ancestry, took her stage name from that of Hekla.</p><br>
<p>Askja is a caldera situated in a remote part of the central highlands of Iceland. The name Askja refers to a complex of nested calderas within the surrounding Dyngjufjöll mountains, which rise to 1,510 m, askja meaning box or caldera in Icelandic</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The region is only accessible for a few months of the year. Being situated in the rain shadow to the northeast of the Vatnajökull glacier, the area receives only about 450 mm of rainfall annually. The area was used during training for the Apollo program to prepare astronauts for the lunar missions. Their main objective in Askja was to study geology.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptions</h2><br>
<p>Askja was virtually unknown until the tremendous eruption which started on March 29, 1875. Especially in the eastern fjords of Iceland, the ashfall was heavy enough to poison the land and kill livestock. Ash, or tephra from this eruption was wind-blown to Norway and Sweden. The eruption triggered a substantial wave of emigration from Iceland. Another less well-known eruption occurred in the early Holocene, ca 11,000 years ago. Tephra from this eruption has been found in south-east Sweden, Northern Ireland and north Norway. The last eruption of Askja was in 1961.</p><br>
<p>The outer caldera of Askja, representing a prehistoric eruption, is about 50 km², and there is evidence of other later caldera-forming events within it. The main crater floor lies at about 1,100 m.</p><br>
<p>In June 2010, Volcano expert Hazel Rymer said seismic activity was increasing at Askja and that an eruption could be around the corner The increased earthquake activity is located to the northeast of the central volcano, in the direction of Herðubreið. It was ruled out that any activity from Eyjafjallajökull was responsible for the increase in activity at Askja. The news came as scientists continue to watch Katla.</p><br>
<p>In early April 2012 it was noted that the lake in the caldera was totally clear of ice, which usually does not happen until in June or July in a normal year. It is believed that increased geothermal activity in the volcano is heating the lake. Travel in the area was restricted until further research could be carried out.</p><br>
<h2>Öskjuvatn lake</h2><br>
<p>Öskjuvatn is a large lake that fills much of the smaller caldera resulting from the 1875 eruption. Its surface lies about 50 m below the level of the main caldera floor and covers about 12 km². When the lake originally formed it was warm, but today it is frozen over for most of the year. Öskjuvatn is the second deepest lake in Iceland at 220 m deep.</p><br>
<h2>Missing scientists</h2><br>
<p>In 1907, the German scientists Walter von Knebel and Max Rudloff visited Askja to study the caldera. While exploring Öskjuvatn in a small boat, they disappeared without a trace. Von Knebel&#39;s fiancée Ina von Grumbkow led an expedition to search for them, but no indication of what happened to them was ever found. Recent observations on the effects of a landslide, on 21 July 2014, has led to renewed speculation that the scientists were killed by a similar sudden event, as the result of a massive wave similar to the one seen in 2014. which was estimated to be 30 meters high.</p><br>
<h2>Sights and tourism in the area</h2><br>
<p>In the Dyngjufjöll mountains which surround the Askja caldera can be found the impressive Drekagil, the canyon of dragons. Not far from Askja, there are two other interesting volcanic systems: Herðubreið and Kverkfjöll.</p><br>
<p>Askja is a popular tourist destination. There are two mountain huts and a campsite at Dreki, by Drekagil, which is about 100 km by a 4x4 F-road, from the Icelandic ring-road. The road continues 8 km up from Dreki into the Askja caldera. It is a walk of about 2.5 km from the car park to Öskjuvatn and Víti. The roads are usually only open for about three to four months, from late June until early October.</p><br>
<p>North Grosvenordale is a village and census-designated place  in the town of Thompson in Windham County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 1,424 at the 2000 census. The core of the village is listed as the North Grosvenordale Mill Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places. The historic area around the cotton mill was listed in 1993 and is located on Riverside Drive , Buckley Hill Road, Floral Avenue, Market Lane, and Marshall, Central, River, and Holmes Streets.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 5.8 km² (2.2 mi²), all land.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of the census of 2000, there were 1,424 people, 589 households, and 385 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 244.4/km² (632.2/mi²). There were 654 housing units at an average density of 112.2/km² (290.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.19% White, 0.84% African American, 0.63% Native American, 0.28% Asian, 0.49% from other races, and 0.56% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.83% of the population.</p><br>
<p>There were 589 households out of which 32.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.8% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.5% were non-families. 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.96.</p><br>
<p>In the CDP, the population was spread out with 26.3% under the age of 18, 8.1% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 93.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males.</p><br>
<p>The median income for a household in the CDP was $38,850, and the median income for a family was $38,214. Males had a median income of $33,906 versus $25,372 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $16,409. About 6.7% of families and 10.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.1% of those under age 18 and 8.0% of those age 65 or over.</p><br>
<p>Ampurias, also known as Empúries , was a town on the Mediterranean coast of the Catalan comarca of Alt Empordà in Catalonia, Spain. It was founded in 575 BC by Greek colonists from Phocaea with the name of Ἐμπόριον . It was later occupied by the Romans , but in the Early Middle Ages, when its exposed coastal position left it open to marauders, the town was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The ruins are midway between the Costa Brava town of LEscala and the tiny village of Sant Martí. There are good car parking facilities and the site may be reached by a traffic-free coastal walk from LEscala.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ampurias was founded on a small island at the mouth of the river Fluvià, in a region inhabited by the Indigetes. This city came to be known as the Palaiapolis, the "old city" when, towards 550 BC, the inhabitants moved to the mainland, creating the Neapolis, the "new city".</p><br>
<p>After the conquest of Phocaea by the Persian king Cyrus II in 530 BC, the new city&#39;s population increased considerably through the influx of refugees. In the face of strong pressure from Carthage, the city managed to retain its independent Hellenic character. Political and commercial agreements were concluded with the indigenous population long settled in the nearby city of Indika. Situated as it was on the coastal commercial route between Massalia (Marseille) and Tartessos in the far south of Hispania, the city developed into a large economic and commercial centre as well as being the largest Greek colony in the Iberian Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>During the Punic Wars, Ampurias allied itself with Rome, and Publius Cornelius Scipio initiated the conquest of Hispania from this city in 218 BC.</p><br>
<p>After the conquest of Hispania by the Romans, Ampurias remained an independent city-state. However, in the civil war between Pompey and Julius Caesar, it opted for Pompey, and after his defeat it was stripped of its autonomy. A colonia of Roman veterans, named Emporiae, was established near Indika to control the region.</p><br>
<p>From that time onwards, Ampurias began to decline, obscured by the power of Tarraco (Tarragona) and Barcino (Barcelona). At the end of the 3rd century it became one of the first cities in Spain to admit Christian evangelists. In that century, too, the Greek town was abandoned while the Roman town survived as a mint and the largely ceremonial seat of a coastal county, Castelló d&#39;Empúries, until the Viking raids of the mid-9th century. Coinage began again under count Hugh II of Empúries (1078–1117).</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological remains</h2><br>
<p>Although the precise location of the town was known since the 15th century, it was only in the 20th century that systematic excavations were carried out. The first official excavations started in 1908 and were held by the Junta de Museus de Barcelona and directed by Emili Gandia i Ortega under the instructions of Josep Puig i Cadafalch and Pere Bosch-Gimpera. These excavations are still going on.</p><br>
<h3>Palaiapolis</h3><br>
<p>The island on which the Palaiopolis was situated is now part of the mainland and is the site of the mediaeval village of Sant Martí d&#39;Empúries. The former harbour has silted up as well. Hardly any excavation has been done here.</p><br>
<p>After the founding of the Neapolis, the old city seems to have functioned as an acropolis (fortress and temple). Strabo mentions a temple dedicated to Artemis at this site.</p><br>
<h3>Neapolis</h3><br>
<p>The Neapolis consisted of a walled precinct with an irregular ground plan of 200 by 130 m. The walls were built, and repeatedly modified in the period from the 5th to the 2nd century BC. To the west the wall separated the Neapolis from the Iberian town of Indika.</p><br>
<p>In the south-west part of the city were various temples, replacing an older one to Artemis, such as a temple to Asclepius, of whom a marble statue was found. In the south-east part was a temple to Zeus-Serapis. The majority of the excavated buildings belong to the Hellenistic period. In addition to houses, some of which are decorated with mosaics and wallpaintings, a number of public buildings have come to light, such as those in the agora and the harbour mole. In the Roman period, thermae and a palaeochristian basilica were built.</p><br>
<p>To the south and east of the new city was an area that served as a necropolis.</p><br>
<h3>Roman city</h3><br>
<p>Of the Roman city only some 20% has been excavated thus far. It has the typical orthogonal layout of Roman military camps, with two principal roads meeting at the forum. The Roman city is considerably larger than the Greek one. During the Republican period a temple was built dedicated to the Capitoline Triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. During the reign of the emperor Augustus a basilica and curia were added.</p><br>
<p>In the eastern part of the town a number of large houses have been excavated, with an inner courtyard, numerous annexes, floor mosaics, and paintings. In the 2nd century the town was surrounded by a wall without towers. An amphitheatre and palaestra were built outside the wall.</p><br>
<h2>Necropolis</h2><br>
<p>The necropolis of Ampurias remained in use for a very long period, from the 7th century BC up to the Middle Ages, but many tombs were looted. Almagro wrote two books collecting all data on the majority of cemeteries in the area. There are four types: early Greek and Iberian, late Republican, early Roman Empire and late Roman Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Early Greeks and Iberians (6th–3rd century BC)</h3><br>
<p>Burials were located in the southern and western sides of Neapolis. The western sector was occupied by the so-called necropolis of the wall northeast. Inhumation (Greeks) predominated while a third of burials were cremations (Iberians).</p><br>
<h3>Late Republican (2nd–1st century BC)</h3><br>
<p>The ancient necropolis remained in use with inhumations and cremations, possibly Greek and indigenous from the Neapolis. Cremations predominated in another group, possibly of Roman origin, whose cemetery is located on the north side of the neighboring hill of Les Corts, located southwest of the city. This necropolis was in use particularly during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Archaeologists found small mounds built with square blocks of stone with the remains of cremation in the middle.</p><br>
<h3>Early Roman Empire (1st century BC – 2nd century AD)</h3><br>
<p>No burials have been found clearly from the second quarter of the 1st century BC until the reign of Augustus (about 35 years). Cremation burials then predominated until the reign of Emperor Flavian (at the end of the 1st century AD) around a hillside where the Roman city is located.</p><br>
<p>Burial rituals changed in the 2nd century AD, with only inhumations found.</p><br>
<h3>Late Roman empire (3rd – 6th century)</h3><br>
<p>Precise chronologies are hampered by the lack of grave goods in tombs. The whole area of the ancient Greek city was filled with inhumation burials, perhaps related to the worship of the early Christian basilica or Cella Memoria, situated there. Burials are also in many of the ancient necropolis of earlier times (as Bonjoan, in use for a thousand years) and in new ones. It is possible they were related to the Roman villae located near them. There is a monument of El Castellet and nearby tombs.</p><br>
<h2>The Archaeology Museum of Catalonia</h2><br>
<p>The branch of the Archaeology Museum of Catalonia in Empúries (MAC-Empúries) strives to offer visitors a thrilling, enriching experience in direct contact with the archaeological remains there. A visit to the Greek city – the only one still conserved in the Iberian Peninsula – and the Roman city are complemented by a tour through the museum, which showcases representative objectives from the history of the site that have been uncovered in the more than 100 years of excavations in Empúries.</p><br>
<p>Lake Taupo is a lake in the North Island of New Zealand. It is in the caldera of the Taupo Volcano. With a surface area of 616 km&sup2, it is the largest lake by surface area in New Zealand, and the second largest freshwater lake by surface area in geopolitical Oceania after Lake Murray . Motutaiko Island lies in the south east area of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lake Taupo has a perimeter of approximately 193 kilometres and a deepest point of 186 metres. It is drained by the Waikato River (New Zealand&#39;s longest river), and its main tributaries are the Waitahanui River, the Tongariro River, and the Tauranga Taupo River. It is a noted trout fishery with stocks of introduced brown and rainbow trout.</p><br>
<h2>Lake formation and volcanism</h2><br>
<p>Lake Taupo is in a caldera created by a supervolcanic eruption which occurred approximately 26,500 years ago. According to geological records, the volcano has erupted 28 times in the last 27,000 years. It has ejected mostly rhyolitic lava, although Mount Tauhara formed from dacitic lava.</p><br>
<p>The initial event 26,500 years ago is known as the Oruanui eruption. It was the world&#39;s largest known eruption over the past 70,000 years, ejecting 1170 cubic kilometres of material and causing several hundred square kilometres of surrounding land to collapse and form the caldera. The caldera later filled with water, eventually overflowing to cause a huge outwash flood. It is possible that the Lake Taupo event contributed to starting the Last Glacial Maximum.</p><br>
<p>Several later eruptions occurred over the millennia before the most recent major eruption, which is traditionally dated as about 180 CE from Greenland ice-core records. Tree ring data from two studies suggests a later date of 232 CE ± 5. Known as the Hatepe eruption, it is believed to have ejected 100 cubic kilometres of material, of which 30 cubic kilometres was ejected in a few minutes. This was one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years (alongside the Minoan eruption in the 2nd millennium BCE, the Tianchi eruption of Baekdu around 1000 CE and the 1815 eruption of Tambora), with a Volcanic Explosivity Index rating of 7; and there appears to be a correlation, to within a few years, of a year in which the sky was red over Rome and China. The eruption devastated much of the North Island and further expanded the lake. The area was uninhabited by humans at the time of the eruption, since New Zealand was not settled by the Māori until about 1280. Possible climatic effects of the eruption would have been concentrated on the southern hemisphere due to the southerly position of Lake Taupo. Taupo&#39;s last known eruption occurred around 30 years later, with lava dome extrusion forming the Horomatangi Reefs, but that eruption was much smaller than the 180 CE eruption.</p><br>
<p>Underwater hydrothermal activity continues near the Horomatangi vent, and nearby geothermal fields with associated hot springs are found north and south of the lake, for example at Rotokawa and Turangi. These springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, that are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is currently considered to be dormant rather than extinct because of moderate fumarole activity and hot springs along the shores of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Biota</h2><br>
<p>Much of the watershed of Lake Taupo is a beech and podocarp forest with associate understory ferns being Blechnum filiforme, Asplenium flaccidum, Doodia media, Hymenophyllum demissum, Microsorum pustulatum and Microsorum scandens, and some prominent associate shrubs being Olearia ranii and Alseuosmia quercifolia.</p><br>
<p>Native faunal species in the lake include northern koura or crayfish (Paranephrops planifrons) and kokopu or whitebait (Galaxias species). The lake is noted for stocks of brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), introduced from Europe and California respectively in the late nineteenth century. There has also been a subsequent introduction of smelt (Retropinnidae species) as a food for the trout.</p><br>
<p>A community of sponges and associated invertebrates live around the underwater geothermal vents.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Tourism is a major component of Taupo&#39;s commercial sector, and the city attracts over 2 million visitors per year. The busiest time for the industry is the high summer season around Christmas and New Year.</p><br>
<p>The lake area has a temperate climate. Daily maximum temperatures recorded for Taupo range from an average of 23.3 °C in January and February to 11.2 °C in July, while the nighttime minimum temperatures range from 11.6 °C in February down to 2.2 °C in July. Rain falls in all seasons but is greatest in winter and spring, from June to December.</p><br>
<p>Taupo hosts the Lake Taupo Cycle Challenge, a cycling tour around the lake which can take anywhere between four and ten hours. Hundreds of volunteers from the Taupo township are involved in the event. Skydiving is a popular local sport and tourist attraction. Taupo also hosts the Kellogg&#39;s Iron Man event.</p><br>
<h3>Māori rock carving</h3><br>
<p>On the north west side of Lake Taupo on the cliffs of Mine Bay, there are Māori rock carvings created in the late 1970s by Matahi Whakataka-Brightwell and John Randall. Carved in likeness of Ngatoroirangi, a navigator who guided the Tuwharetoa and Te Arawa tribes to the Taupo area over a thousand years ago according to Māori legend. The 10-metre-high carving is intended to protect Lake Taupo from volcanic activities underneath. The cliff has become a popular tourist destination with hundreds of boats and yachts visiting the spot yearly.</p><br>
<h3>Māori tribes</h3><br>
<p>Lake Taupo is a taonga (treasure or something special to the person) of Ngati Tuwharetoa from the Te Arawa waka. Ngati Tuwharetoa still own the bed of the lake and its tributaries. They grant the public free access for recreational use</p><br>
<p>Mount Kosciuszko is a mountain located on the Main Range of the Snowy Mountains in Kosciuszko National Park, part of the Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves, in New South Wales, Australia and is located west of Crackenback and close to Jindabyne.</p><br>
<p>With a height of 2,228 m above sea level, it is the highest mountain in Australia. Various measurements of the peak originally called Kosciuszko showed it to be slightly lower than its neighbour, Mount Townsend. The names of the mountains were swapped by the New South Wales Lands Department in 1892 so that Mount Kosciuszko remains the name of the highest peak of Australia, and Mount Townsend ranks as second. The 1863 picture by Eugene von Guerard hanging in the National Gallery of Australia titled "Northeast view from the northern top of Mount Kosciusko" is actually from Mount Townsend.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>It was named by the Polish explorer Pawel Edmund Strzelecki in 1840, in honour of the Polish-Lithuanian national hero, General Tadeusz Kościuszko, because of its perceived resemblance to the Kościuszko Mound in Kraków.</p><br>
<p>The name of the mountain was previously spelt "Mount Kosciusko", an Anglicisation, but the spelling "Mount Kosciuszko" was officially adopted in 1997 by the Geographical Names Board of New South Wales. The traditional English pronunciation of Kosciuszko is, but the pronunciation is now sometimes used, which is substantially closer to the Polish pronunciation.</p><br>
<p>There are several native Aboriginal (Ngarigo) names associated with the mountain, with some confusion as to the exact sounds. These are Jagungal, Jar-gan-gil, Tar-gan-gil, Tackingal; however, all of them mean "Table Top Mountain."</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>The mountain was formed, by geologic uplift. It was not formed by any recent volcanic activity. Eroded granite intrusions remain at the summit as large boulders above the more heavily eroded sedimentary rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Reaching the summit</h2><br>
<p>Mount Kosciuszko is the highest summit in mainland Australia. Until 1977 it was possible to drive from Charlotte Pass to within a few metres of the summit, but in 1977 the road was closed to public motor vehicle access due to environmental concerns. The road is open from Charlotte Pass for walkers and cyclists for 7.6 km to Rawson Pass, at an elevation of 2,100 m above sea level. From there a 1.4 km walking path leads to the summit. Cyclists must leave their bicycles at a bicycle rack at Rawson Pass and continue to the summit on foot. Anyone with a modest level of fitness can walk to the top.</p><br>
<p>The peak may also be approached from Thredbo, taking 3 to 3.5 hours for a round trip. This straightforward walk starts from the top of the Thredbo Kosciuszko Express chairlift, which operates all-year round. The walking path is popular in summer, and is a mesh walkway to protect the native vegetation and prevent erosion. It is 5 km to Rawson Pass, where it meets the track from Charlotte Pass, and from where it is a further 1.4 km to the summit.</p><br>
<p>The walk to the summit is the easiest of all the Seven Summits.</p><br>
<p>Australia&#39;s highest public toilet was built at this pass in 2007, to cope with the more than 100,000 people visiting the mountain each summer.</p><br>
<p>The peak and the surrounding areas are snow-covered in winter and spring (usually beginning in June and continuing until October or later). The road from Charlotte Pass is marked by snow poles and provides a guide for cross-country skiers and the track from Thredbo is easily followed until covered by snow in winter.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>Kosciuszko National Park is also the location of the downhill ski slopes closest to Canberra and Sydney, containing the Thredbo, Charlotte Pass, and Perisher ski resorts. Mount Kosciuszko may have been ascended by Indigenous Australians long before the first recorded ascent by Europeans.</p><br>
<p>Each year in December, an ultramarathon running race called the Coast to Kosciuszko ascends to the top of Mount Kosciuszko after starting at the coast 240 km away. Paul Every, who is credited as being the one who thought of holding such a race, was the inaugural co-winner in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>Higher Australian mountains</h2><br>
<p>Higher peaks exist within territory administered or claimed by Australia, but outside the continent are Mawson Peak (2,745 m) on Heard Island and Dome Argus (4,030 m), Mount McClintock (3,490 m) and Mount Menzies (3,355 m) in the Australian Antarctic Territory.</p><br>
<p>Higher peaks in the region, but outside the mainland continent include:</p><br>
<p>Puncak Jaya (4,884 m) in New Guinea. It is the highest island mountain in the world, the highest mountain in Indonesia and the highest in the Australian continent and Oceania</p><br>
<p>Puncak Mandala (4,760 m) in the Papua province of Indonesia. It is the second highest mountain of the Australian continent, Oceania, Australasia, New Guinea and Indonesia</p><br>
<p>Puncak Trikora (4,750 m) in the Papua province of Indonesia.</p><br>
<p>Mount Wilhelm (4,509 m) in Papua New Guinea. It is the highest mountain in that country.</p><br>
<p>Mount Victoria (4,072 m) in Central Province, Papua New Guinea.</p><br>
<p>Mount Giluwe (4,368 m) a volcanic mountain in Papua New Guinea. It is the highest volcanic summit in the Australian continent.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Australian rock band Midnight Oil performed a song called "Kosciusko" on its 1984 album Red Sails in the Sunset, referring to the mountain. The spelling was updated to "Kosciuszko" for the group&#39;s 1997 compilation album, 20,000 Watt R.S.L.</p><br>
<p>Ecbatana  was an ancient city in Media in western Iran. It is believed that Ecbatana is in Tell Hagmatana , near Hamedan.</p><br>
<p>Excavations at Kaboutar Ahang have revealed stone age tools and pottery from 1400 to 1200 BC. According to Herodotus, Ecbatana was chosen as the Medes&#39; capital in the late 8th century BC by Deioces. Under the Persian kings, Ecbatana, situated at the foot of Mount Alvand, became a summer residence. Later, it became the capital of the Parthian kings, at which time it became their main mint, producing drachm, tetradrachm, and assorted bronze denominations. It is also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Ezra 6.2) under the name Achmetha (also spelled Ahmetha, e.g. JTS Bible). Also ( Micah 5.2&3) foretold the time and place of the birth of Christ. Upon the dawn of the first century, 1 AD, then Parthian King Vonones had gold drahms minted in his likeness, sending his three emissaries to Bethlehem to present them to the new born King of Judaha. Hebrew Bible, new testament (Matthew 2.1-23.)</p><br>
<p>In 330 BC, Ecbatana was the site of the murder of the Macedonian general Parmenion by order of Alexander the Great.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Ecbatana was first excavated in 1913 by Charles Fossey.</p><br>
<p>Another excavation was conducted in 1977.</p><br>
<h2>Controversies</h2><br>
<p>The Greeks thought Ecbatana to be the capital of Medes empire and ascribed its foundation to Deioces (the Daiukku of the cuneiform inscriptions). It is alleged that he surrounded his palace in Ecbatana with seven concentric walls of different colours. In the 5th century BC, Herodotus wrote of Ecbatana: "The Medes built the city now called Ecbatana, the walls of which are of great size and strength, rising in circles one within the other. The plan of the place is, that each of the walls should out-top the one beyond it by the battlements. The nature of the ground, which is a gentle hill, favors this arrangements in some degree but it is mainly effected by art. The number of the circles is seven, the royal palace and the treasuries standing within the last. The circuit of the outer wall is very nearly the same with that of Athens. On this wall the battlements are white, of the next black, of the third scarlet, of the fourth blue, the fifth orange; all these colors with paint. The last two have their battlements coated respectively with silver and gold. All these fortifications Deioces had caused to be raised for himself and his own palace."</p><br>
<p>However, this association remains problematic. There is currently no evidence of Median existence in Hagmatana hill prior to the Parthian era afterwards. Similarly, Assyrian sources never mention Hagmatana/Ecbatana. Some scholars believe the problem can be resolved by identifying the Ecbatana/Hagmatana mentioned in later Greek and Achaemenid sources with the city Sagbita/Sagbat frequently mentioned in Assyrian texts, since the Indo-Iranian sound /s/ became /h/ in many Iranian languages. The Sagbita mentioned by Assyrian sources was located in the proximity of the cities Kishesim (Kar-Nergal) and Harhar (Kar-Sharrukin).</p><br>
<p>Sir Henry Rawlinson attempted to prove that there was a second and older Ecbatana in Media Atropatene on the site of the modern Takht-i-Suleiman. However, the cuneiform texts imply that there was only one city of the name, and that Takht-i Suleiman is the Gazaca of classical geography.</p><br>
<p>Ecbatana is the supposed capital of Astyages (Istuvegü), which was taken by the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great in the sixth year of Nabonidus (549 BC).</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe  is a large freshwater lake in the Sierra Nevada of the United States. Lying at 6,225 ft, it straddles the state line between California and Nevada, west of Carson City. Lake Tahoe is the largest alpine lake in North America, and at 122,160,280 acre.ft trails only the five Great Lakes as the largest by volume in the United States. Its depth is 1,645 ft, making it the second deepest in the United States after Crater Lake in Oregon .</p><br>
<p>The lake was formed about 2 million years ago as part of the Lake Tahoe Basin, with the modern extent being shaped during the ice ages. It is known for the clarity of its water and the panorama of surrounding mountains on all sides. The area surrounding the lake is also referred to as Lake Tahoe, or simply Tahoe. More than 75% of the lake&#39;s watershed is national forest land, comprising the Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit of the United States Forest Service.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe is a major tourist attraction in both Nevada and California. It is home to winter sports, summer outdoor recreation, and scenery enjoyed throughout the year. Snow and ski resorts are a significant part of the area&#39;s economy and reputation. The Nevada side also offers large casinos, with highways providing year-round access to the entire area.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe is the second deepest lake in the USA, with a maximum depth of 1,645 ft, Tahoe is the 16th deepest lake in the world, and the fifth deepest in average depth. It is about 22 mi long and 12 mi wide and has 72 mi of shoreline and a surface area of 191 square miles. Approximately two-thirds of the shoreline is in California. The south shore is dominated by the lakes largest city, South Lake Tahoe, California, which adjoins the town of Stateline, Nevada, while Tahoe City, California, is located on the lakes northwest shore. Although highways run within sight of the lake shore for much of Tahoe&#39;s perimeter, many important parts of the shoreline lie within state parks or are protected by the United States Forest Service. The Lake Tahoe Watershed (USGS Huc 18100200) of 505 square miles includes the land area that drains to the lake and the Lake Tahoe drainage divide traverses the same general area as the Tahoe Rim Trail.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe is fed by 63 tributaries. These drain an area about the same size as the lake and produce half its water, with the balance entering as rain or snow falling directly on it.</p><br>
<p>The Truckee River is the lakes only outlet, flowing northeast through Reno, Nevada, into Pyramid Lake which has no outlet. It accounts for one third of the water that leaves the lake, the rest evaporating from the lakes vast surface. The flow of the Truckee River and the height of the lake are controlled by the Lake Tahoe Dam at the outlet. The natural rim is at 6,223 ft above sea level, with a spillway at the dam controlling overflow. The maximum legal limit, to which the lake can be allowed to rise in order to store water, is at 6,229.1 ft. Around New Year 1996/1997 a Pineapple Express atmospheric river melted snow and caused the lake and river to overflow, inundating Reno and surrounding areas.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The Lake Tahoe Basin was formed by vertical motion (normal) faulting. Uplifted blocks created the Carson Range on the east and the main Sierra Nevada crest on the west. Down-dropping and block tilting (half-grabens) created the Lake Tahoe Basin in between. This kind of faulting is characteristic of the geology of the adjoining Great Basin to the east.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe is the youngest of several extensional basins of the Walker Lane deformation zone that accommodates nearly 12 mm/yr of dextral shear between the Sierra Nevada-Great Valley Block and North America.</p><br>
<p>Three principal faults form the Lake Tahoe basin: the West Tahoe Fault, aligned between Meyers and Tahoe City, and which is the local segment of the Sierra Nevada Fault, extending on shore north and south of these localities; the Stateline/North Tahoe Fault, starting in the middle of the lake and creating the relief that forms Stateline, NV; and the Incline Village Fault, which runs parallel to the Stateline/North Tahoe Fault offshore and into Incline Village. The West Tahoe Fault appears to be the most active and potentially hazardous fault in the basin. A study in Fallen Leaf Lake, just south of Lake Tahoe, used seafloor mapping techniques to image evidence for paleoearthquakes on the West Tahoe and revealed the last earthquake occurred between 4,100 and 4,500 years ago. Subsequent studies revealed submarine landslides in Fallen Leaf Lake and Lake Tahoe that are thought to have been triggered by earthquakes on the West Tahoe fault and the timing of these events suggests a recurrence interval of 3,000–4,000 years.</p><br>
<p>Some of the highest peaks of the Lake Tahoe Basin that formed during the process of Lake Tahoe creation are Freel Peak at 10,891 ft, Monument Peak at 10,067 ft, Pyramid Peak at 9,984 ft (in the Desolation Wilderness), and Mount Tallac at 9,735 ft. The north shore boasts three peaks at 10,000+ feet: Mount Rose, Houghton and Relay peaks. Mt. Rose is a very popular hiking and backcountry skiing destination.</p><br>
<p>Eruptions from the extinct volcano Mount Pluto formed a dam on the north side. Melting snow filled the southern and lowest part of the basin to form the ancestral Lake Tahoe. Rain and runoff added additional water.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada adjacent to Lake Tahoe were carved by scouring glaciers during the Ice Ages, which began a million or more years ago, and retreated ~15,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene. The glaciers carved canyons that are today iconic landmarks such as Emerald Bay, Cascade Lake, and Fallen Leaf Lake, among others. Lake Tahoe itself never held glaciers, but instead water is retained by damming Miocene volcanic deposits.</p><br>
<p>Soils of the basin come primarily from andesitic volcanic rocks and granodiorite, with minor areas of metamorphic rock. Some of the valley bottoms and lower hill slopes are mantled with glacial moraines, or glacial outwash material derived from the parent rock. Sandy soils, rock outcrops and rubble and stony colluvium account for over 70% of the land area in the basin. The basin soils (in the &lt; 2 mm fraction) are generally 65–85% sand (0.05–2.0 mm).</p><br>
<p>Given the great depth of Lake Tahoe, and the locations of the normal faults within the deepest portions of the lake, modeling suggests that earthquakes on these faults can trigger tsunamis. Wave heights of these tsunamis are predicted to be on the order of 10 to 33 ft in height, capable of traversing the lake in just a few minutes. A massive collapse of the western edge of the basin that formed McKinney Bay around 50,000 years ago is thought to have generated a tsunami/seiche wave with a height approaching 330 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe has a dry-summer continental climate (Dsb in the Koeppen climate classification). Mean annual precipitation ranges from over 55 inches (1440 mm) for watersheds on the west side of the basin to about 26 inches (660 mm) near the lake on the east side of the basin. Most of the precipitation falls as snow between November and April, although rainstorms combined with rapid snowmelt account for the largest floods. There is a pronounced annual runoff of snowmelt in late spring and early summer, the timing of which varies from year to year. In some years, summertime monsoon storms from the Great Basin bring intense rainfall, especially to high elevations on the northeast side of the basin.</p><br>
<p>August is normally the warmest month at the Lake Tahoe Airport (elevation 6,254 ft) with an average maximum of 78.7 °F (25.9 °C) and an average minimum of 39.8 °F (4.3 °C). January is the coolest month with an average maximum of 41.0 °F (5.0 °C) and an average minimum of 15.1 °F (−9.4 °C). The all-time maximum of 99 °F (37.2 °C) was recorded on July 22, 1988. The all-time minimum of −16 °F (−26.7 °C) was recorded on December 9, 1972. Temperatures exceed 90 °F (32.2 °C) on an average of 2.0 days annually. Minimum temperatures of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower occur on an average of 231.8 days annually, and minimum temperatures of 0 °F (−17.8 °C) or lower occur on an average of 7.6 days annually. Freezing temperatures have occurred in every month of the year. (1903–2007 climate data)</p><br>
<p>(30-year climate data)</p><br>
<h3>Ecology</h3><br>
<p>(Oncorhynchus nerka) jumping a beaver damright</p><br>
<p>Vegetation in the basin is dominated by a mixed conifer forest of Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), white fir (Abies concolor), and red fir (A. magnifica). The basin also contains significant areas of wet meadows and riparian areas, dry meadows, brush fields (with Arctostaphylos and Ceanothus) and rock outcrop areas, especially at higher elevations. Ceanothus is capable of fixing nitrogen, but mountain alder (Alnus tenuifolia), which grows along many of the basin’s streams, springs and seeps, fixes far greater quantities, and contributes measurably to nitrate-N concentrations in some small streams. The beaches of Lake Tahoe are the only known habitat for the rare Lake Tahoe yellowcress (Rorippa subumbellata), a plant which grows in the wet sand between low- and high-water marks.</p><br>
<p>Each autumn, from late September through mid-October, mature kokanee salmon (Oncorhyncus nerka) transform from silver-blue color to a fiery vermilion, and run up Taylor Creek, near South Lake Tahoe. As spawning season approaches the fish acquire a humpback and protuberant jaw. After spawning they die and their carcasses provide a feast for gatherings of mink (Neovison vison), bears (Ursus americanus), and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). The non-native salmon were transplanted from the North Pacific to Lake Tahoe in 1944.</p><br>
<p>North American beaver (Castor canadensis) were re-introduced to the Tahoe Basin by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife and the USA Forest Service between 1934 and 1949. Descended from no more than nine individuals, 1987 beaver populations on the upper and lower Truckee River had reached a density of 0.72 colonies (3.5 beavers) per kilometer. At the present time beaver have been seen in Tahoe Keys, Taylor Creek, Meeks Creek at Meeks Bay on the western shore, and Kings Beach on the north shore, so the descendants of the original nine beavers have apparently migrated around most of Lake Tahoe. Recently novel physical evidence has demonstrated that beaver were native to the Sierra until at least the mid-nineteenth century, via radiocarbon dating of buried beaver dam wood uncovered by deep channel incision in the Feather River watershed. That report was supported by a summary of indirect evidence of beaver including reliable observer accounts of beaver in multiple watersheds from the northern to the southern Sierra Nevada, including its eastern slope. A specific documented record of beaver living historically in Lake Tahoes North Canyon Creek watershed above Glenbrook includes a description of Spooner Meadow rancher Charles Fulstone hiring a caretaker to control the beaver population in the early 20th century. A recent study of Taylor Creek showed that beaver dam removal decreased wetland habitat, increased stream flow, and increased total phosphorus pollutants entering Lake Tahoe – all factors which negatively impact the clarity of the lakes water. In addition, beaver dams located in Ward Creek, located on the west shore of Lake Tahoe, were also shown to decrease nutrients and sediments traveling downstream.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s cold temperatures and extreme depth can slow the decomposition rate of organic matter. For example, a diver was found at a depth of 300 ft 17 years after being lost, with his body preserved nearly perfectly.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Native people</h3><br>
<p>The area around Lake Tahoe was previously inhabited by the Washoe tribe of Native Americans. Lake Tahoe was the center and heart of Washoe Indian territory, including the upper valleys of the Walker, Carson and Truckee Rivers. The English name for Lake Tahoe derives from the Washo word "dá’aw," meaning "The Lake" or possibly "The Lake of the Sky."</p><br>
<h3>Exploration and naming</h3><br>
<p>Lt. John C. Frémont was the first person of European descent to see Lake Tahoe, during Fremonts second exploratory expedition on February 14, 1844. John Calhoun Johnson, Sierra explorer and founder of "Johnsons Cutoff" (now USA Route 50), was unlikely the first white man to see Meeks Bay and from a peak above the lake he named Fallen Leaf Lake after his Indian guide, as the area had been overly explorated by the Spaniards for centuries. His first job in the west was in the government service, carrying the mail on snowshoes from Placerville to Nevada City, during which time he named the lake "Lake Bigler" in honor of California’s third governor John Bigler.</p><br>
<p>In 1853 William Eddy, the surveyor general of California, identified the lake as Lake Bigler. During the Civil War, Union advocates objected to the name, because Bigler was an ardent secessionist. Due to this, the USA Department of the Interior introduced the name Tahoe in 1862. Both names were in use: the legislature passed legislation declaring the official name to be Lake Bigler in 1870, while to most surveys and the general public it was known as Lake Tahoe. The lake didn&#39;t receive its official and final designation as Lake Tahoe until 1945.</p><br>
<h3>Mining era</h3><br>
<p>Upon discovery of gold in the South Fork of the American River in 1848, thousands of gold seekers going west passed near the basin on their way to the gold fields. European civilization first made its mark in the Lake Tahoe basin with the 1858 discovery of the Comstock Lode, a silver deposit just 15 miles (24 km) to the east in Virginia City, Nevada. From 1858 until about 1890, logging in the basin supplied large timbers to shore up the underground workings of the Comstock mines. The logging was so extensive that loggers cut down almost all of the native forest.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe became a transportation hub for the surrounding area as mining and logging commenced prior to development of railroads. The first mail delivery was via a sailboat which took a week to visit each of the lakeside communities. J.A. Todman brought steam-powered passenger service to Lake Tahoe in 1872 with the 100 ft 125-passenger side-wheel steamer Governor Stanford which reduced the mail delivery trip around Lake Tahoe to eight hours. Todman expanded service with steamboats Mamie, Niagara, and Tod Goodwin. Lawrence & Comstock provided competition with their steel-hulled steamboat Tallac in 1890 and later purchased Todman&#39;s steamboats Mamie and Tod Goodwin. The Carson and Tahoe Lumber and Fluming Company purchased the 83 ft Niagara and built the iron-hulled steamboats Meteor in 1876 and Emerald (II) in 1887. The 75 ft Meteor was the fastest boat on Lake Tahoe with a speed of 22 mile per hour. Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company dominated the passenger and mail route after launch of their 200-passenger steamboat Tahoe on 24 June 1896. The 154-ton Tahoe was 170 ft long with a slender 18 ft beam so her 1,200 HP engines could push her over the lake at 18.5 knots. Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company purchased Tallac and rebuilt her as Nevada with length increased by 20 ft to serve as a backup steamboat when Tahoe required maintenance.</p><br>
<p>Tod Goodwin burned at Tallac, and most of the other steamboats were retired as the sawmills ran out of trees and people began traveling by automobile. Niagara was scrapped at Tahoe City in 1900. Governor Stanford was beached at Glenbrook where its boiler was used until 1942 heating cottages at Glenbrook Inn and Ranch. Steamboats continued to carry a mail clerk around Lake Tahoe until 1934, when the mail contract was given to the 42 ft motorboat Marian B powered by two Chevrolet engines. Mail delivery moved ashore after Marian B was lost on 17 May 1941 with her owner and the mail clerk attempting mail delivery during a storm. The 60 ft Emerald (II) left Lake Tahoe in 1935 to become a fishing boat in San Diego. Historic Tahoe, Nevada, and Meteor were purchased with hope they might be preserved; but were scuttled in deep water after deterioration made preservation impractical. The latter two lie in Glenbrook Bay, but Tahoe sank in deeper water.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Even in the mining era, the potential of the basin as a tourist destination was recognized. Tahoe City was founded in 1864 as a resort community for Virginia City.</p><br>
<p>Public appreciation of the Tahoe basin grew, and during the 1912, 1913 and 1918 congressional sessions, congressmen tried unsuccessfully to designate the basin as a national park.</p><br>
<p>While Lake Tahoe is a natural lake, it is also used for water storage by the Truckee-Carson Irrigation District (TCID). The lake level is controlled by Lake Tahoe Dam built in 1913 at the lakes only outlet, the Truckee River, at Tahoe City. The 18 ft high dam can increase the lakes capacity by 744,600 acre.ft.</p><br>
<p>During the first half of the 20th century, development around the lake consisted of a few vacation homes. The post-World War II population and building boom, followed by construction of gambling casinos in the Nevada part of the basin during the mid-1950s, and completion of the interstate highway links for the 1960 Winter Olympics held at Squaw Valley, resulted in a dramatic increase in development within the basin. From 1960 to 1980, the permanent residential population increased from about 10,000 to greater than 50,000, and the summer population grew from about 10,000 to about 90,000. Since the 1980s, development has slowed due to controls on land use.</p><br>
<h3>Government and politics</h3><br>
<p>After a dispute that included gunshots exchanged between militia, in 1864, California and Nevada defined a partition that followed geographical coordinates: the state line runs east of the approximate center line of the lake; at 39 degrees north latitude, the state line runs southeasterly towards the Colorado River.</p><br>
<p>Unbeknownst to the negotiators, this compromise split Lake Tahoe: two-thirds for California, one-third for Nevada. In California, Lake Tahoe is divided between Placer County and El Dorado County. In Nevada, Lake Tahoe is divided among Washoe County, Douglas County and Carson City (an independent city).</p><br>
<p>As the population grew and development expanded in the 1960s, the question of protecting the lake became more imperative. In 1969, the USA Congress and the California and Nevada State Legislatures created a unique compact to share resources and responsibilities. The Compact established the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (TRPA), a bi-state agency charged with environmental protection of the Basin through land-use regulation and planning. In 1980, the USA Congress amended the Compact with public law 96-551. The law designated a new agency, the Tahoe Transportation District (TTD), to facilitate and implement Basin and regional transportation improvements/additions for the protection, restoration and use of the lake. Schisms between both agencies and local residents have led to the formation of grass-roots organizations that hold to even stricter environmentalism.</p><br>
<h3>Historical locations</h3><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe is also the location of several 19th and 20th century palatial homes of historical significance. The Thunderbird Lodge built by George Whittel Jr once included nearly 27 mi of the Nevada shoreline. Vikingsholm was the original settlement on Emerald Bay and included an island teahouse and a 38-room home. The Ehrman Mansion is a summer home built by a former Wells Fargo president in Sugar Pine Point and is now a state park.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental issues</h2><br>
<h3>Water quality</h3><br>
<p>Despite land-use planning and export of treated sewage effluent from the basin, the lake is becoming increasingly eutrophic (having an excessive richness of nutrients), with primary productivity increasing by more than 5% annually, and clarity decreasing at an average rate of 0.25 meters per year. Until the early 1980s, nutrient-limitation studies showed that primary productivity in the lake was nitrogen-limited. Now, after a half-century of accelerated nitrogen input (much of it from direct atmospheric deposition), the lake is phosphorus-limited. Theodore Swift et al., concluded that "suspended inorganic sediments and phytoplanktonic algae both contribute significantly to the reduction in clarity, and that suspended particulate matter, rather than dissolved organic matter, are the dominant causes of clarity loss." The largest source of fine sediment particles to Lake Tahoe is urban stormwater runoff, comprising 72 percent of the total fine sediment particle load. Recent research has shown that the urban uplands also provide the largest opportunity to reduce fine sediment particle and phosphorus contributions to the lake. Historic clarity of approximately 30 meters can be achieved with total reduction of approximately 75 percent from urban sources.</p><br>
<p>Historically, the clarity of Lake Tahoe continued to decrease through 2010, when the average Secchi depth, 64.4 feet, was the second lowest ever recorded (the lowest was 64.1 feet in 1997). This represented a decrease of 3.7 feet from the previous year. However, the lake&#39;s clarity increased from 2011 to 2014, improving by nearly 20 percent.</p><br>
<p>A water quality study by the Lahontan Water Quality Control Board and the Nevada Division of Environmental Protection determined the largest source of fine sediment particles: 71 percent is developed area (urban) erosion and run-off, much of it associated with transportation infrastructure and services.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe is a tributary watershed drainage element within the Truckee River Basin, and its sole outlet is the Truckee River, which continues on to discharge to Pyramid Lake. Because of the sensitivity of Truckee River water quality (involving two protected species, the cui-ui sucker fish and the Lahontan cutthroat trout), this drainage basin has been studied extensively. The primary investigations were stimulated by the USA Environmental Protection Agency, who funded the development of the DSSAM model to analyze water quality below Lake Tahoe.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe never freezes. Since 1970, it has mixed to a depth of at least 1,300 ft a total of 6 or 7 times. Dissolved oxygen is relatively high from top to bottom. Analysis of the temperature records in Lake Tahoe has shown that the lake warmed (between 1969 and 2002) at an average rate of 0.015 °C per year. The warming is caused primarily by increasing air temperatures, and secondarily by increasing downward long-wave radiation. The warming trend is reducing the frequency of deep mixing in the lake, and may have important effects on water clarity and nutrient cycling.</p><br>
<h3>Ecosystem changes</h3><br>
<p>Since the 1960s, the Lakes food web and zooplankton populations have undergone major changes. In 1963–65, opossum shrimp (Mysis diluviana) were introduced to enhance the food supply for the introduced Kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). The shrimp began feeding on the lakes cladocerans (Daphnia and Bosmina), and their populations virtually disappeared by 1971. The shrimp provide a food resource for salmon and trout, but also compete with juvenile fish for zooplankton. Since the 1970s, the cladoceran populations have somewhat recovered, but not to former levels.</p><br>
<p>Since 2006, goldfish have been observed in the lake, where they have grown to "giant size", behaving like an invasive species. They may have descended from former pets which owners dumped or escaped, when used as fishing bait.</p><br>
<p>In June 2007, the Angora Fire burned approximately 3,100 acre throughout the South Lake Tahoe area. While the impact of ash on the lake&#39;s ecosystem is predicted to be minimal, the impact of potential future erosion is not yet known.</p><br>
<h3>Environmental protection</h3><br>
<p>Until recently, construction on the banks of the Lake had been largely under the control of real estate developers. Construction activities have resulted in a clouding of the lake&#39;s blue waters. Currently, the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency is regulating construction along the shoreline (and has won two Federal Supreme Court battles over recent decisions). These regulations are unpopular with many residents, especially those in the Tahoe Lakefront Homeowners Association.</p><br>
<p>The League to Save Lake Tahoe (Keep Tahoe Blue) has been an environmental watchdog in the Lake Tahoe Basin for 50 years.</p><br>
<p>Since 1980, the Lake Tahoe Interagency Monitoring Program (LTIMP) has been measuring stream discharge and concentrations of nutrients and sediment in up to 10 tributary streams in the Lake Tahoe Basin, California-Nevada. The objectives of the LTIMP are to acquire and disseminate the water quality information necessary to support science-based environmental planning and decision making in the basin. The LTIMP is a cooperative program with support from 12 federal and state agencies with interests in the Tahoe Basin. This data set, together with more recently acquired data on urban runoff water quality, is being used by the Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board to develop a program (mandated by the Clean Water Act) to limit the flux of nutrients and fine sediment to the Lake.</p><br>
<p>UC Davis remains a primary steward of the lake. The UC Davis Tahoe Environmental Research Center is dedicated to research, education and public outreach, and to providing objective scientific information for restoration and sustainable use of the Lake Tahoe Basin. Each year, it produces a well-publicized "State of the Lake" assessment report.</p><br>
<h2>Tourist activities</h2><br>
<p>Much of the area surrounding Lake Tahoe is devoted to the tourism industry and there are many restaurants, ski slopes, golf courses and casinos catering to visitors.</p><br>
<h3>Winter sports</h3><br>
<p>During ski season, thousands of people from all over Nevada and California, including Reno, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, and Sacramento, flock to the slopes for downhill skiing. Lake Tahoe, in addition to its panoramic beauty, is well known for its blizzards.</p><br>
<p>Some of the major ski areas in Tahoe include:</p><br>
<p>Heavenly Mountain Resort: the largest ski area in California and Nevada, located near Stateline</p><br>
<p>Squaw Valley: the second largest ski area, known for its hosting of the 1960 Winter Olympics, located near Tahoe City</p><br>
<p>Alpine Meadows: a medium-sized ski area on the north shore only a few miles from Squaw Valley</p><br>
<p>Diamond Peak: a small ski area located in Incline Village, Nevada</p><br>
<p>Northstar California: a popular north shore ski area</p><br>
<p>Kirkwood Mountain Resort: a ski area which gets more snow than any other ski area in the Tahoe region</p><br>
<p>Sierra-at-Tahoe: a medium-sized south shore ski area</p><br>
<p>Boreal Mountain Resort: a small ski area on Donner Pass</p><br>
<p>Sugar Bowl Ski Resort: a medium-sized ski area in Donner Pass</p><br>
<p>Donner Ski Ranch: a very small ski area on Donner Pass</p><br>
<p>Homewood Mountain Resort: a medium-sized ski area on the west shore</p><br>
<p>Mount Rose Ski Resort: a medium-sized ski area north-east of the Lake, on Slide Mountain</p><br>
<p>The majority of the ski resorts in the Lake Tahoe region are on the northern end of the lake, near Truckee, California and Reno, Nevada. Kirkwood, Sierra-at-Tahoe and Heavenly are located on the southern side of the lake, 55 - from Reno.</p><br>
<p>Scattered throughout Tahoe are public and private sled parks. Some, such as Granlibakken are equipped with rope tows to help sledders get up the hill.</p><br>
<p>Many ski areas around Tahoe also have snow tubing, such as Squaw Valley. Throughout Tahoe, cross-country skiing, snowmobile riding and snowshoeing are also popular.</p><br>
<h3>Water sports</h3><br>
<p>During late Spring to early Fall, the lake is popular for water sports and beach activities. The two cities most identified with the Lake Tahoe tourist area are South Lake Tahoe, California and the smaller Stateline; smaller centers on the northern shoreline include Tahoe City and Kings Beach.</p><br>
<p>Other popular activities include parasailing, jet ski rentals and eco-friendly paddle sport rentals. There are rental locations located around Lake Tahoe. Kayaking and stand up paddle boards have also become very popular.</p><br>
<p>Boating is a primary activity in Tahoe in the summer. The lake is home to one of the most prestigious wooden boat shows in the country, the Lake Tahoe Concours d&#39;Elegance, held every August. There are lake front restaurants all over the lake, most equipped with docks and buoys (See the restaurants section). There are all sorts of boating events, such as sailboat racing, firework shows over the lake, guided cruises, and more. As an interstate waterway, Lake Tahoe is subject to the United States Coast Guard. Lake Tahoe is home to Coast Guard Station Lake Tahoe.</p><br>
<p>SCUBA diving is popular at Lake Tahoe, with some dive sites offering dramatic drop-offs or wall dives. Diving at Lake Tahoe is considered advanced due to the increased risk of decompression sickness (DCS) while diving at such a high altitude.</p><br>
<p>Fred Rogers became the first person to swim the length of Lake Tahoe in 1955, and Erline Christopherson became the first woman to do so in 1962.</p><br>
<h3>Hiking and bicycling</h3><br>
<p>There are numerous hiking and mountain biking trails around the lake. They range widely in length, difficulty and popularity. One of the most famous of Tahoes trails is the Tahoe Rim Trail, a 165-mile (270-km) trail that circumnavigates the lake. Directly to the west of the lake is the Granite Chief Wilderness, which provides great hiking and wilderness camping. Also, to the southwest is the very popular Desolation Wilderness. One of the most popular trailheads used to access these popular destinations is Eagle Lake Trailhead, located near Emerald Bay on Tahoes west shore. The Flume Trail of the east shore is one of Mountain Biking Magazine&#39;s Top 10 Trails in the USA There are also many paved off-road bicycle paths that meander through communities on all sides of the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Gambling</h3><br>
<p>Gambling is legal on the Nevada side of Lake Tahoe. Casinos, each with a variety of slot machines and table games, are located on the South Shore in Stateline, and on the North Shore in Crystal Bay and Incline Village.</p><br>
<p>When Nevada legalized gambling in 1931, the first casino at the lake had already been open for years. First built on the North Shore in Crystal Bay by Robert Sherman in 1926, the Calneva cabin became the property of Norman Henry Biltz and was sold to Bill Graham and Jim McKay in 1929.</p><br>
<p>The Calneva was rebuilt after a fire in 1937 and expanded several times, most noticeably in 1969 when the high-rise hotel was built. Along the way, Frank Sinatra owned the property in the early 1960s, shared his cabins with the likes of Sam Giancana and Marilyn Monroe, and sold out at the height of the area&#39;s popularity.</p><br>
<p>Other casinos at the North Shore include the Crystal Bay Club, first built in 1937 as the Ta-Neva-Ho; the Tahoe Biltmore, and the Nugget. The Hyatt Regency is found at Incline Village.</p><br>
<p>At South Shore, Bill Harrah purchased the Stateline Country Club, which had stood since 1931 and built Harrah&#39;s Tahoe. Other casinos include Hard Rock Hotel and Casino Lake Tahoe, Harveys Lake Tahoe, Montbleu, and the Lakeside Inn.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe can be reached directly by car, and indirectly by train or air. The nearest passenger train service is the Amtrak station in Truckee, and is served by Amtrak&#39;s train, the California Zephyr, which runs daily between Chicago and the San Francisco Bay Area. The closest scheduled passenger airline service is available via the Reno-Tahoe International Airport (RNO).</p><br>
<h3>Highways</h3><br>
<p>Visitors can reach Lake Tahoe under ideal conditions within two hours from the Sacramento area, one hour from Reno or thirty minutes from Carson City. In winter months, chains or snow tires are often necessary to reach Tahoe from any direction. Traffic can be heavy on weekends due to tourists if not also from weather.</p><br>
<p>The primary routes to Lake Tahoe are on Interstate 80 via Truckee, USA Route 50, and Nevada State Route 431 via Reno. Most of the highways accessing and encircling Lake Tahoe are paved two-lane mountain roads. US 50 is a four-lane highway (from the canyon of the South Fork American River at Riverton, over the Sierra Nevada at Echo Summit, and into the Lake Tahoe Basin, is a mainly two-lane road) passing south of the lake and along part of the eastern shore.</p><br>
<p>California State Route 89 follows the western shore of the lake through the picturesque wilderness and connects camping, fishing and hiking locations such as those at Emerald Bay State Park, DL Bliss State Park and Camp Richardson. Farther along are communities such as Meeks Bay and Tahoe City. Finally, the highway turns away from the lake and heads northwest toward Truckee.</p><br>
<p>California State Route 28 completes the circuit from Tahoe City around the northern shore to communities such as Kings Beach, Crystal Bay, and into Incline Village, Nevada where the road becomes Nevada State Route 28. Route 28 returns along the eastern shore to US 50 near Spooner Lake.</p><br>
<h3>Major area airports</h3><br>
<p>Reno-Tahoe International Airport/KRNO (Reno, Nevada)</p><br>
<p>Sacramento International Airport/KSMF (Sacramento, California)</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe Airport/KTVL (South Lake Tahoe, California)</p><br>
<p>Truckee-Tahoe Airport/KTRK (Truckee, California)</p><br>
<p>Minden-Tahoe Airport/KMEV (Minden, Nevada)</p><br>
<h2>Communities</h2><br>
<h3>California</h3><br>
<p>Placer County</p><br>
<p>Carnelian Bay #3</p><br>
<p>Dollar Point #4</p><br>
<p>Kings Beach #1</p><br>
<p>Sunnyside-Tahoe City #5</p><br>
<p>Tahoe Vista #2</p><br>
<p>Tahoma (partially in El Dorado County) #6</p><br>
<p>El Dorado County</p><br>
<p>South Lake Tahoe #7</p><br>
<p>Tahoma (partially in Placer County) #6</p><br>
<h3>Nevada</h3><br>
<p>Carson City #14</p><br>
<p>Douglas County</p><br>
<p>Glenbrook #13</p><br>
<p>Lakeridge #11</p><br>
<p>Logan Creek #12</p><br>
<p>Round Hill Village #8</p><br>
<p>Skyland #10</p><br>
<p>Stateline #17</p><br>
<p>Zephyr Cove #9</p><br>
<p>Washoe County</p><br>
<p>Crystal Bay #16</p><br>
<p>Incline Village #15</p><br>
<h2>In the media</h2><br>
<p>The Ponderosa Ranch of the TV series Bonanza was formerly located on the Nevada side of Lake Tahoe. The opening sequence of the TV series was filmed at the McFaul Creek Meadow, with Mount Tallac in the background. In September 2004 the Ponderosa Ranch closed its doors, after being sold to developer David Duffield for an undisclosed price.</p><br>
<p>The 1974 film The Godfather Part II used the lakeside estate Fleur de Lac as the location of several scenes, including the elaborate First Communion celebration, the Senators shakedown attempt of Michael, the assassination attempt on Michael, Michael disowning Fredo, Carmela Corleones funeral, Fredo&#39;s death while fishing, and the closing scene of Michael sitting alone outside. Fleur de Lac, on the western California shore of Lake Tahoe, was formerly the Henry Kaiser estate. The surrounding lakeside area has been developed into a private gated condominium community and some of the buildings of the "Corleone compound" still exist, including the boathouse.</p><br>
<p>The 2014 film Last Weekend, starring Patricia Clarkson and directed by Tom Dolby and Tom Williams, used the west shore lakefront home of Ray and Dagmar Dolby as the primary location for its interiors and exteriors. The house, built in 1929, was also the site for the exteriors for A Place in the Sun, starring Elizabeth Taylor and Montgomery Clift. The 1988 film Things Change was also filmed here.</p><br>
<p>Anticosti Island  is an island in the province of Quebec, Canada at the outlet of the Saint Lawrence River into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, between 49° and 50° N., and between 61° 40 and 64° 30&#39; W. At 7,892.52 km&sup2; in size, it is the 90th largest island in the world and 20th largest island in Canada. Anticosti Island is separated on the north from the Côte-Nord region of Quebec  by the Jacques Cartier Strait, and on the south from the Gaspé Peninsula by the Honguedo Strait.</p><br>
<p>Anticosti Island is larger than Prince Edward Island but sparsely populated (240 people in 2011), with most of the permanent population in the village of Port-Menier on the western tip of the island, consisting chiefly of the keepers of the lighthouses erected by the Canadian government. The entire island constitutes one municipality known as LÎle-dAnticosti.</p><br>
<p>Due to more than 400 shipwrecks off its coasts, Anticosti Island is sometimes called the "Cemetery of the Gulf".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Anticosti Island is part of the eastern Saint Lawrence lowlands. It is 217 km long and has a maximum breadth of 48 km—1½ times as large as the province of Prince Edward Island. Its coastline is 520 km long, and is rocky and dangerous, offering little shelter for ships except in Gamache, Ellis, and Fox Bays. There are large shoals to the south.</p><br>
<p>The largest lake on the island is Lake Wickenden, which feeds the Jupiter River. There are numerous rivers on Anticosti, many of which flow through deep gorges and canyons to the north and south shores.</p><br>
<p>Topographically, Anticosti Island can be divided into three distinct regions: two lowland areas, rarely exceeding 150 m in elevation, in the eastern and western thirds of the island linked along the coast; and a central highland forming a plateau that rises to just over 300 m. This plateau is a unidirectional structure slightly tilted to the south, and is characterized by rolling cuestas. The rocks exposed on the island form a continuous sedimentary stratum more than 2,000 m thick. These are the most complete strata in eastern North America of the Ordovician and Silurian periods.</p><br>
<p>The climate of Anticosti Island is maritime sub-boreal, tempered by the maritime influence of the Gulf of St. Lawrence which reduces the temperature differences. The average annual temperature is 1.9 &deg;C. The month of July is the warmest with an average temperature of 14.79 &deg;C. Conversely, February is the coldest month, on average -11.2 &deg;C. Snow precipitation is abundant, usually accumulating over 300 cm in the western and central parts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>For thousands of years, Anticosti Island was the territory of the indigenous peoples who lived on the mainland and used it as a hunting ground. The Innu called it Notiskuan, translated as "where bears are hunted" and the Mi&#39;kmaq called it Natigôsteg, meaning "forward land".</p><br>
<p>The French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed along its shore in the summer of 1534. He provided its first written description and named it Isle de l&#39;Assomption, because he discovered it on the Day of the Assumption of Mary. This name had fallen into disuse by 1656. About 1586, the historian André Thevet wrote that "the savages named Naticousti", while Samuel de Champlain spelled it Antiscoti (1612), Antiscoty (1613), Enticosty (1625) and Antycosty (1632). From that time on, France had officially incorporated the island into its colonial empire.</p><br>
<p>Its first settlers arrived in 1680 when King Louis XIV gave Louis Jolliet the Seigneury of the Mingan Archipelago and Anticosti Island as compensation for exploring the Mississippi and Hudson Bay. Louis Jolliet erected a fort on Anticosti and in the spring of 1681 settled there with his wife, four children and six servants. His fort was captured and occupied during the winter of 1690 by some of the Massachusetts troops of William Phips during their retreat after an unsuccessful attempt to capture Quebec City. After Jolliets death in 1700, the island was divided among his three sons and the Jolliet family retained ownership until 1763 when the island became part of British North America under the terms of the Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years War. That same year, the island was annexed to Newfoundland until 1774 when it was returned to Lower Canada and annexed again to Newfoundland from 1809 to 1825. It became a part of Quebec (as Lower Canada came to be called) at the Canadian Confederation in 1867. During these years the island property changed hands several times, its owners generally using it for the harvesting of timber; otherwise no real development took place. For example, the French Canadian Gabriel-Elzéar Taschereau owned it among other seigneuries and made money from them.</p><br>
<p>In 1874, it was bought by the Anticosti Island Company and they founded the villages at English Bay and Fox Bay. Most of the inhabitants, however, continued to be the few keepers of the islands many lighthouses. Because of the number of shipwrecks around the island, stores of provisions were also maintained around the island for sailors who might be washed ashore. In 1882, the Parish of Notre-Dame-de-lAssomption was founded, a term referring to Cartiers name for the island. In 1884, the island became property of the Stockwell brothers who formed a forestry company two years later. But they were unsuccessful and the company lasted only five years. By the 1890s, the fish and wildlife of the island had been almost eradicated through the locals indiscriminate slaughter.</p><br>
<p>In 1895, Anticosti was sold for $125,000 to French chocolate maker Henri Menier who also leased the shore fishing rights. Menier named the islands 70 m high Vauréal Falls after the town of Vauréal in France where he owned a home. He constructed the entire village of Port-Menier, built a cannery for packing fish and lobsters, and attempted to develop its resources of lumber, peat and minerals. Many of the original houses still stand today. Furthermore, he converted the island into a personal game preserve and introduced nonindigenous animals for this purpose, including a herd of 220 white-tailed deer. The deer thrived and today the population exceeds 160,000 while the islands moose population is about 1,000. It has been reported that black bears, which rely on berries to bulk on for the winter, had lived on the island until the introduction, but have disappeared perhaps because of the deer eating the berry bushes bare.</p><br>
<p>Henri Menier died in 1913 and his brother Gaston became the owner of Anticosti Island. He used and maintained it for a time but eventually decided it was not an economically viable operation and sold it to the Wayagamack Pulp and Paper Company in 1926 for $6,000,000. For the next five decades, the island was used almost exclusively by logging companies which invested nothing in environmental or heritage protection, while the villages at English Bay and Fox Bay were abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Wayagamack was successful until the Great Depression when the paper market collapsed. The island property was taken over by Consolidated Paper Corporation Limited in 1931, but they showed little interest in it and put it up for sale. Offers came from Canadian, American, British, French and Belgian parties. In July 1937, an offer was received from a consortium of Dutch and German capitalists who intended to build a sulphite mill and wanted a steady supply of pulpwood and access to Canadian capital. In the autumn of that year, a team of German surveyors travelled to the island to examine its timber and export potential. When this story broke in the Montreal Gazette of 2 December 1937, it caused an immediate controversy since the story claimed that the survey team was really made up of Adolf Hitler&#39;s agents and that most were naval, military and fortifications experts. Despite the substantial offer, the promise of thousands of new jobs, and the fact that there were no legal methods to block the sale, the suspicions remained. A committee was set up to investigate the affair but concluded that "there was no evidence to indicate that the project has other than a commercial purpose". When the deadline to purchase the island passed on 15 September 1938, the offer expired and controversy died out.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, the government of Quebec purchased the island from the forestry company Consolidated Bathurst Ltd. for $23,780,000. Anticosti was placed under management by the Ministry of Recreation, Hunting and Fishing (ministère du Loisir de la Chasse et de la Pêche) and in 1983 the process began to set up a working municipal structure. Today, about 60% is under management by Sépaq and since April 2001, 572 km&sup2; has been designated as a national conservation park. With its 24 rivers and streams bountiful with salmon and trout, the island is now a tourist destination for anglers and hunters, particularly from the United States and Canada, as well as for paleontologists, bird watchers and hikers.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality of LÎle-dAnticosti</h2><br>
<h2>Access and transportation</h2><br>
<p>Access to the island is either by boat or plane. From April to mid-January, the commercial shipping company Relais Nordik services Port-Menier twice weekly with a passenger and cargo vessel.</p><br>
<p>The Port-Menier Airport is serviced by Air Liaison which provides regular scheduled flights to Sept-Îles and Havre-St-Pierre. There are two other aerodromes on the island, both towards the eastern end. Rivière-aux-Saumons (CTH7) is located on the northern side of the island and was paved in July 2010; Rivière Bell (CRB5) is gravel and is located on the southern side. These are used by outfitters and charter companies that provide private air services during the tourist season.</p><br>
<p>The Henri-Menier Road or Transanticostienne Road, the island&#39;s unpaved main road, stretches from Port-Menier to the eastern tip, with numerous forest roads branching off to provide access to various tourist locations and logging concessions. Car rental is available in Port-Menier.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The forests of Anticosti Island are typical boreal forest, with common species such as white spruce, balsam fir, and black spruce. It is distinguished by some minor stands of American white birch and trembling aspen. Balsam fir is slowly being replaced with white spruce because of intensive grazing done by deer and by periodic outbreaks of hemlock looper and spruce budworm. About a quarter of the island is covered by peat lands.</p><br>
<p>Anticosti Island is home to the rare lady’s slipper orchid. While populations are declining elsewhere in eastern North America, the orchid flourishes here abundantly, making Anticosti a refuge for this plant.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The wildlife is characteristic of an isolated marine environment. Of the 24 mammal species, 14 of these are marine mammals that include grey seals and harbour seals. Even large whales ply the nearby cold waters of the gulf.</p><br>
<p>Originally, there were probably only seven indigenous species of land mammals, namely the red fox, river otter, deer mouse, American marten, black bear and two bat species (the little brown and northern bat), but the marten and bear have now disappeared. Black fox have been seen on the island.</p><br>
<p>In order to make Anticosti Island a hunter&#39;s paradise, several animal species have been introduced since 1896, making the island an unprecedented biological experiment. In all, sixteen new species have been introduced, but six proved to be unsuccessful, including bison, caribou, elk, mink and fisher. For ten species it has been fruitful: six species of terrestrial mammals (such as white-tailed deer, moose, beaver, snowshoe hare and muskrat), two species of frogs, and two species of non-migratory birds (ruffed grouse and the spruce grouse). Of all these species introduced, the success of white-tailed deer is particular noteworthy. From an initial group of about 200 introduced in 1896 and 1897, the population of white-tailed deer has grown to an estimated 160,000 animals today, representing a density of 20 deer/km.</p><br>
<p>The brook trout, Atlantic salmon and American eel visit the shores and swim up several rivers of the island.</p><br>
<p>Some 221 bird species distributed among 21 families have been observed on Anticosti Island. It is home to nearly 60% of the known breeding sites of the bald eagle in the province of Quebec.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Because of its untamed wilderness and abundant wildlife, Anticosti Island is known for its hunting, fishing and outdoor opportunities and it attracts some 3,000 to 4,000 hunters per year.</p><br>
<p>The majority of Anticosti Island (4,213 km&sup2;) is under management by Sépaq Anticosti, a division of the provincial parks and wildlife reserves agency Sépaq. It actively promotes tourism on the island, in particular hunting and fishing tours. Another 572 km&sup2; is protected in the Anticosti National Park (Parc national d&#39;Anticosti). In addition to hunting and fishing, many other outdoor recreational activities are supported in this park, such as hiking, horseback riding, nature viewing and sea kayaking.</p><br>
<p>There are also five commercial outfitters that hold exclusive hunting and fishing rights to 7,263 km&sup2; of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Utica Shale</h2><br>
<p>The Utica Shale, a stratigraphical unit of Middle Ordovician age that is potentially rich in shale gas reserves, underlies the Anticosti Islands and extends to surrounding areas in Quebec, Ontario and much of northeastern United States. In February 8, 2011, the citizen group "Non au Pétrole et au Gaz au Québec" released one of the biggest petitions in Quebec history against fracking in the province of Quebec with 128,000 signatures thinking it would prevent the oil and gaz exploration on Anticosti. In June 2011, the Quebec firm Pétrolia claimed to have discovered about 30 billion barrels of oil on the island of Anticosti, which is the first time that significant reserves have been found in the province.</p><br>
<p>In February 2014, Premier of Quebec Pauline Marois announced that the provincial government would help finance two exploratory shale gas operations as a prelude to hydraulic fracturing on the island, with the province pledging $115-million to finance drilling for two separate joint ventures in exchange for rights to 50% of the licences and 60% of any commercial profit. It was the first oil and gas deal of any size for the province. With the change in government that occurred in April 2014, the Liberals of Philippe Couillard could change that decision. Petrolia Inc., Corridor Resources and Maurel & Prom formed one joint-venture, while Junex Inc. was still seeking a private partner.</p><br>
<p>On June 4, 2013, the citizen group "Non au Pétrole et au Gaz au Québec" realizing that Anticosti was still unprotected against fracking, released another petition, also one of the largest in Quebec history, with 26,000 signatures against fracking, exploration and exploitation of oil and gas on Anticosti Island asking for a moratorium and an environmental evaluation. Geological engineer Marc Durand gave a presentation at a conference explaining that a minimum of 12,000 wells would be necessary for this exploitation and would put Quebec in debt, considering the 12 million dollar cost of one of these wells. A year later, when Pauline Marois announced an investment of 115 million dollars for Petrolia to continue the exploration, the same petition increased up to 36,000 signatures. The government has not started a BAPE (environmental evaluation) specific for Anticosti.</p><br>
<p>The Magdalen Islands  form a small archipelago in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence with a land area of 205.53 km&sup2;. Though closer to Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, the islands form part of the Canadian province of Quebec.</p><br>
<p>The islands form the territory equivalent to a regional county municipality (TE) and census division (CD) of Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine. Its geographical code is 01.</p><br>
<p>The islands also form the urban agglomeration of Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine, divided into two municipalities. These are Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine (2011 census pop. 12,291), the central municipality, and Grosse-Île (pop. 490). The mayors are Jonathan Lapierre and Rose Elmonde Clarke, respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>There are eight major islands: Amherst, Grande Entrée, Grindstone, Grosse-Île, House Harbour, Pointe-Aux-Loups, Entry Island and Brion.</p><br>
<p>All except Brion are inhabited. There are several other tiny islands that are also considered part of the archipelago: Bird Rock (Rocher aux Oiseaux), Seal Island (Île aux Loups-marins), Île Paquet and Rocher du Corps Mort.</p><br>
<p>The islands&#39; interiors were once completely covered with pine forests. An ancient salt dome underlies the archipelago.</p><br>
<p>The inherent buoyancy of the salt forces the uplift of overlying Permian red sandstone.</p><br>
<p>Nearby salt domes are believed to be sources of fossil fuels.</p><br>
<p>Rock salt is mined on the Islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1534 Jacques Cartier was the first European to visit the islands. However, Mi&#39;kmaqs had been visiting the islands for hundreds of years as part of a seasonal subsistence migration, probably to harvest the abundant walrus population. A number of archaeological sites have been excavated on the archipelago.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago was named in 1663 by François Doublet (1619 or 1620 - approx. 1678), the seigneur of the island, after his wife, Madeleine Fontaine.</p><br>
<p>In 1765, the islands were inhabited by 22 French-speaking Acadians and their families. They were working and hunting walruses for British trader Richard Gridley. To this day, many inhabitants of the Magdalen Islands (Madelinots) fly the Acadian flag and identify as both Acadian and Québécois.</p><br>
<p>The islands were administered as part of the British Colony of Newfoundland from 1763 until 1774. That year they were joined to Quebec by the Quebec Act.</p><br>
<p>A segment of the population are descendants of survivors of the more than 400 shipwrecks on the islands. Some of the historic houses were built from wood from the shipwrecks. The islands have some of Quebecs oldest English-speaking settlements. Although the majority of anglophones have long since assimilated with the francophone population or migrated elsewhere, English-speaking settlements are found at Old Harry, Grosse-Ile, and Entry Island. The islands are known for a childrens French camp. Activities include sand-castle competitions and a night alone in the woods.</p><br>
<p>To improve ship safety, the government constructed lighthouses on the islands. They indicate navigable channels and have reduced the number of shipwrecks, but many old hulks are found on the beaches and under the waters.</p><br>
<p>Until the 20th century, the islands were completely isolated during the winter, since the pack ice made the trip to the mainland impassable by boat. The inhabitants of the islands had no means of communication with the mainland. An underwater cable was installed to enable communication by telegraph. In the winter of 1910, the cable broke and the islands were again isolated. Residents sent an urgent request for help to the mainland by writing letters and sealing them inside a molasses barrel (or puncheon), which they set adrift. It reached the shore on Cape Breton Island, where residents notified the government of the Madelinots&#39; emergency. The government sent an icebreaker to bring aid. Within a few years, the government constructed new wireless telegraph stations on the Magdalens to ensure they had communication in the winter. The puncheon became famous as a symbol of survival; every tourist shop sells replicas.</p><br>
<p>At one time, large walrus herds were found near the islands but they had been destroyed by the end of the 18th century due to overhunting. In the 21st century, the islands&#39; beaches provide habitat for the endangered piping plover and the roseate tern.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h3>Population</h3><br>
<h3>Language</h3><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The maritime climate enjoyed by Magdalen Islands is markedly different from that of the mainland. The huge water masses that circle the archipelago temper the weather and create milder conditions in each season. On the islands, winter is mild, spring is cool, there are few heat waves in summer, and fall is typically warm. The Magdalen Islands have the least amount of annual frost in the Province of Québec. The warm breezes of summer persist well into September, and sometimes early October. However, in spite of this under the Köppen climate classification its climate is humid continental, due to its winters averaging far below freezing by maritime standards.</p><br>
<p>The highest temperature ever recorded in Îles-de-la-Madeleine was 31.1 &deg;C on 31 July 1949. The coldest temperature ever recorded was -27.2 &deg;C on 14 February 1891.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Tourism is a major industry on the Magdalen Islands. The islands have many kilometres of white sand beaches, along with steadily eroding sandstone cliffs. They are a destination for bicycle camping, sea kayaking, windsurfing and kitesurfing. During the winter months, beginning in mid-February, eco-tourists visit to observe new-born and young harp seal pups on the pack ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence surrounding the islands.</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to Canadian Salt Company Seleine Mines, which produces road salt for use in Quebec, Atlantic Canada and the United States&#39; eastern seaboard. Opened in 1982, the salt mine and plant is located in Grosse-Île and extracts salt from an underground mine 30 m below Grande-Entrée Lagoon. It produces 1 million tons of salt, and employs 200 people.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Coopérative de transport maritime et aérien (Groupe C.T.M.A.) operates a ferry service between terminals in Souris, Prince Edward Island and Cap-aux-Meules. Groupe C.T.M.A. also operates a seasonal cruise ferry service between the islands and Montreal.</p><br>
<p>The Magdalen Islands Airport at Havre-aux-Maisons offers scheduled air service to Labrador and mainland Quebec.</p><br>
<p>The Southern Alps  is a mountain range extending along much of the length of New Zealands South Island, reaching its greatest elevations near the ranges western side. The term "Southern Alps" generally refers to the entire range, although separate names are given to many of the smaller ranges that form part of it.</p><br>
<p>The range includes the South Island&#39;s Main Divide, which separates the water catchments of the more heavily populated eastern side of the island from those on the west coast. Politically, the Main Divide forms the boundary between the Canterbury and West Coast Regions.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Southern Alps run approximately 500 km northeast to southwest. Its tallest peak is Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest point in New Zealand at 3,724 m. The Southern Alps include sixteen other points that exceed 3,000 m in height (see NZ Mountains by Height). The mountain ranges are bisected by glacial valleys, many of which are infilled with glacial lakes on the eastern side including Lake Coleridge in the north to Lake Wakatipu in Otago in the south. According to an inventory conducted in the late 1970s, the Southern Alps contained over 3,000 glaciers larger than one hectare, the longest of which – the Tasman Glacier – is 23.5 km in length which has retreated from a recent maximum of 29 km in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>Settlements include Maruia Springs, a spa near Lewis Pass, the town of Arthur&#39;s Pass, and Mount Cook Village.</p><br>
<p>Major crossings of the Southern Alps in the New Zealand road network include Lewis Pass (SH7), Arthur&#39;s Pass (SH73), Haast Pass (SH6), and the road to Milford Sound (SH94).</p><br>
<p>The Southern Alps were named by Captain Cook on 23 March 1770, who described their "prodigious height". They had previously been noted by Abel Tasman in 1642, whose description of the South Island&#39;s west coast is often translated as "a land uplifted high".</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>New Zealand has a humid maritime, temperate climate with the Southern Alps lying perpendicular to the prevalialing westerly flow of air. Annual precipitation varies greatly across the range, from 3,000 mm at the West Coast, 15,000 mm close to the Main Divide, to 1,000 mm 30 km east of the Main Divide. This high precipitation aids the growth of glaciers above the Snow line. Large glaciers and snowfields can be found west of or on the Main Divide, with smaller glaciers further east (See Glaciers of New Zealand).</p><br>
<p>Because of its orientation perpendicular to the prevailing westerly winds, the range creates excellent wave soaring conditions for glider pilots. The town of Omarama, in the lee of the mountains, has gained an international reputation for its gliding conditions. The prevailing westerlies also create a weather pattern known as the Norwest arch, in which moist air is pushed up over the mountains, forming an arch of cloud in an otherwise blue sky. This weather pattern is frequently visible in summer across Canterbury and North Otago. The Norwester is a foehn wind similar to the Chinook of Canada, where mountain ranges in the path of prevailing moisture laden winds force air upwards, thus cooling the air and condensing the moisture to rain, producing hot dry winds in the descending air lee of the mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Southern Alps lie along a geological plate boundary, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, with the Pacific Plate to the southeast pushing westward and colliding with the northward-moving Indo-Australian Plate to the northwest. Over the last 45 million years, the collision has pushed up a 20 km thickness of rocks on the Pacific Plate to form the Alps, although much of this has been eroded away. Uplift has been most rapid during the last 5 million years, and the mountains continue to be raised today by tectonic pressure, causing earthquakes on the Alpine Fault and other nearby faults. Despite the substantial uplift, most of the relative motion along the Alpine Fault is transverse, not vertical. However, significant dip-slip occurs on the plate boundary to the north and east of the North Island, in the Hikurangi Trench and Kermadec Trench. The transfer of motion from strike-slip on the Alpine Fault to dip-slip motion at these subduction zones to the north creates the Marlborough Fault System, which has resulted in significant uplift in the region.</p><br>
<p>In 2017 a large international team of scientists reported they had discovered beneath Whataroa, a small township on the Alpine Fault, "extreme" hydrothermal activity which "could be commercially very significant".</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The mountains are rich in flora with about 25% of the country&#39;s plant species being found above the treeline in alpine plant habitats and grassland with mountain beech forest at lower elevations (of the eastern side but not in Westland). The cold windswept slopes above the treeline are covered with areas of fellfield. To the east, the Alps descend to the high grasslands of Canterbury and Otago. Plants adapted to the alpine conditions include woody shrubs like Hebe, Dracophyllum, and Coprosma, the conifer snow totara (Podocarpus nivalis) and Carex sedge grasses.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Wildlife of the mountains includes the endemic rock wren (Xenicus gilviventris) and the kea, a large parrot that was once hunted as a pest. There are also a number of endemic insects adapted to these high altitudes especially flies, moths, beetles, and bees. The beech forests of the lower elevations are important habitat for two birds; the great spotted kiwi (Apteryx haastii) and the South Island kaka (Nestor meridionalis meridionalis).</p><br>
<h2>Threats and preservation</h2><br>
<p>The mountains are inaccessible and retain their natural vegetation. A large proportion of the range is well protected as part of various national parks, notably the Westland Tai Poutini National Park, Mount Aspiring National Park, and Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park or protected areas such as Lake Sumner Forest Park. Indigenous plant life is affected by introduced animals such as red deer (Cervus elaphus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) all of which have at times been targeted for culling, while the birds and reptiles are vulnerable to introduced predators.</p><br>
<h2>Panoramic view</h2><br>
<p>The Golden Gate is a strait on the west coast of North America that connects San Francisco Bay to the Pacific Ocean. It is defined by the headlands of the San Francisco Peninsula and the Marin Peninsula, and, since 1937, has been spanned by the Golden Gate Bridge. The entire shoreline and adjacent waters throughout the strait are managed by the Golden Gate National Recreation Area.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>During the last Ice Age, when sea level was several hundred feet lower, the waters of the glacier-fed Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River scoured a deep channel through the bedrock on their way to the ocean. (A similar process created the undersea Hudson Canyon off the coast of New York and New Jersey.) The strait is well known today for its depth and powerful tidal currents from the Pacific Ocean. Many small whirlpools and eddies can form in its waters. With its strong currents, rocky reefs and fog, the Golden Gate is the site of over 100 shipwrecks.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Golden Gate is often shrouded in fog, especially during the summer. Heat generated in the California Central Valley causes air there to rise, creating a low pressure area that pulls in cool, moist air from over the Pacific Ocean. The Golden Gate forms the largest break in the hills of the California Coast Range, allowing a persistent, dense stream of fog to enter the bay there.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before the Europeans arrived in the 18th century, the area around the strait and the bay was inhabited by the Ohlone to the south and Coast Miwok people to the north. Descendants of both tribes remain in the area.</p><br>
<p>The strait was surprisingly elusive for early European explorers, presumably due to this persistent summer fog. The strait is not recorded in the voyages of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo nor Francis Drake, both of whom may have explored the nearby coast in the 16th century in search of the fabled Northwest Passage. The strait is also unrecorded in observations by Spanish galleons returning from the Philippines that laid up in nearby Drakes Bay to the north. These galleons rarely passed east of the Farallon Islands (27 mi west of the Golden Gate), fearing the possibility of rocks between the islands and the mainland.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded observation of the strait occurred nearly two hundred years later than the earliest European explorations of the coast. In 1769, Sgt José Francisco Ortega, the leader of a scouting party sent north along the San Francisco Peninsula by Don Gaspar de Portolá from their expedition encampment in San Pedro Valley to locate the Point Reyes headlands, reported back to Portolá that he could not reach the location because of his encounter with the strait. On 5 August 1775 Juan de Ayala and the crew of his ship San Carlos became the first Europeans known to have passed through the strait, anchoring in a cove behind Angel Island, the cove now named in Ayalas honor. Until the 1840s, the strait was called the "Boca del Puerto de San Francisco" ("Mouth of the Port of San Francisco"). On 1 July 1846, before the discovery of gold in California, the entrance acquired a new name. In his memoirs, John C. Frémont wrote, "To this Gate I gave the name of Chrysopylae, or Golden Gate&#39;; for the same reasons that the harbor of Byzantium was called Chrysoceras, or Golden Horn." He went on to comment that the strait was “a golden gate to trade with the Orient.”</p><br>
<h3>1920s</h3><br>
<p>In the 1920s, no bridge spanned the watery expanse between San Francisco and Marin in California—so when the USA Post Office issued a postage stamp on 1 May 1923, celebrating The Golden Gate, the issue naturally portrayed the scene without a bridge. The schooner sailing ship in the engraving is the USS Babcock, which served in the United States Navy from 1917 to 1919, and is seen passing through the Golden Gate into San Francisco Bay, its port of call.</p><br>
<h3>Golden Gate Bridge</h3><br>
<p>The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate, the opening of the San Francisco Bay onto the Pacific Ocean. As part of both US Highway 101 and California Route 1, it connects the city of San Francisco on the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula to Marin County.</p><br>
<p>The Golden Gate Bridge was the longest suspension bridge span in the world when completed in 1937, and is an internationally recognized symbol of San Francisco and California in general. Since its completion, the span length has been surpassed by eight other bridges. It still has the second longest suspension bridge main span in the United States, after the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in New York City. In 2007, it was ranked fifth on the List of America&#39;s Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.</p><br>
<h2>In local culture</h2><br>
<p>The name "Golden Gate" holds an important connotation in the Bay Area as a reference point for the region, and is attached to the bridge that spans the strait, a large park in San Francisco, and various local establishments.</p><br>
<h3>Golden Gate Park</h3><br>
<p>Golden Gate Park, located in San Francisco, California, is a large urban park consisting of 1,017 acre of public grounds. Configured as a rectangle, it is similar in shape but 174 acre larger than Central Park in New York, to which it is often compared. With 13 million visitors annually, Golden Gate is the fifth most visited city park in the United States after Central Park, Lincoln Park in Chicago, and Balboa and Mission Bay Parks in San Diego. The park is not adjacent to the Golden Gate strait.</p><br>
<h2>Nautical transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Golden Gate strait serves as the primary access channel for nautical travel to and from the San Francisco Bay, one of the largest cargo ports in the United States. Commercial ports includes the Port of Oakland, the Port of Richmond, and the Port of San Francisco. Commercial cargo ships use the Golden Gate to access the San Francisco Bay, as well as barges, tankers, fishing boats, cruise ships, and privately owned boats, including wind-surfers and kite-boards. About 9000 ships moved through the Golden Gate in 2014, and a similar amount in 2015. The U.S Coast Guard maintains a Vessel Traffic Service to monitor and regulate vessel traffic through the Golden Gate.</p><br>
<p>For navigational guidance, there are white and green lights on the center of the span of the Golden Gate Bridge. Lighthouses with beacons and foghorns provide alerts at Point Bonita, Point Diablo, Lime Point and Mile Rocks. Before the Golden Gate Bridge was built, a lighthouse protected the south side of the strait at Fort Point. Buoys and radar reflectors provide additional navigational aid at various locations throughout the strait.</p><br>
<p>The Darß or Darss is the middle part of the peninsula of Fischland-Darß-Zingst on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in the German state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. The peninsula&#39;s name comes from the names of the three regions making up the peninsula. There is a large forest in the Darß. In recent times, the name "Darß" has also been used to refer to the entire peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The Darß is famous for being a resting place for tens of thousands of migrating cranes and geese. Tourism has long been a source of income and has increased since German reunification, but the Darß is still far from being a crowded tourist place.</p><br>
<h2>Location and character</h2><br>
<p>The Darß lies northeast of Fischland and west of the peninsula of Zingst, its boundary with the latter being formed by the inlet of the Prerower Strom. To the north lies the Baltic Sea; to the south the lagoons of Saaler Bodden and Bodstedter Bodden, which belong to the Darss-Zingst Bodden Chain. The Darß measures between ten and twelve kilometres from north to south and from east to west and is home to the villages of Born a. Darß, Prerow and Wieck. The village of Ahrenshoop in the municipality of Ahrenshoop belongs to Vordarß, whilst the southern villages in Ahrenshoop, Althagen and Niehagen, are part of Fischland.</p><br>
<p>Most of the Darß is covered by the woodland of the Darß Forest, 5,800 hectares in area. On the northern tip of the Darß, at Darßer Ort, is a lighthouse of the same name. The National Park exhibition in Wieck a. Darß provides information about the geological development as well as the flora and fauna of the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park, as does the Natureum in Wieck a. Darß attached to the Darßer Ort Lighthouse, as outstations of the German Oceanographic Museum in Stralsund. Darßer Ort is an extended chain of sandbanks running in a northeasterly direction. The entire area around Darßer Ort as well as the northwestern part of the Darß Forest is part of Protection Zone I of the National Park and may only be visited on marked paths. The rest of the forested region is also part of the National Park.</p><br>
<p>Bolsover Castle is a castle in Bolsover, Derbyshire, England. It was built in the early 17th century by the Cavendish family, on the site of a medieval castle founded in the 12th century by the Peverel family. The site is now in the care of English Heritage and is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Medieval</h3><br>
<p>A castle was built by the Peverel family in the 12th century and became Crown property in 1155 when William Peverel the Younger died. The Ferrers family who were Earls of Derby laid claim to the Peveril property.</p><br>
<p>When a group of barons led by King Henry IIs sons – Henry the Young King, Geoffrey Duke of Brittany, and Prince Richard, later Richard the Lionheart – revolted against the kings rule, Henry spent £116 on building at the castles of Bolsover and Peveril in Derbyshire. The garrison was increased to a force led by 20 knights and was shared with the castles of Peveril and Nottingham during the revolt. John ascended the throne in 1199 after his brother Richards death. William de Ferrers maintained the claim of the Earls of Derby to the Peveril estates. He paid John 2000 marks for the lordship of the Peak, but the Crown retained possession of Bolsover and Peveril Castles. John finally gave them to Ferrers in 1216 to secure his support in the face of country-wide rebellion. However, the castellan Brian de Lisle refused to hand them over. Although Lisle and Ferrers were both Johns supporters, John gave Ferrers permission to use force to take the castles. The situation was still chaotic when Henry III became king after his fathers death in 1216. Bolsover fell to Ferrers forces in 1217 after a siege.</p><br>
<p>The castle was returned to crown control in 1223, at which point £33 was spent on repairing the damage the Earl of Derby had caused when capturing the castle six years earlier. Over the next 20 years, four towers were added, the keep was repaired, various parts of the curtain wall were repaired, and a kitchen and barn were built, all at a cost of £181. From 1290 onwards, the castle and its surrounding manor were granted to a series of local farmers. Under their custodianship, the castle gradually fell into a state of disrepair.</p><br>
<h3>Post-medieval</h3><br>
<p>The manor and castle were purchased by Sir George Talbot in 1553. They were sold by Gilbert, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury to Sir Charles Cavendish, son of Bess of Hardwick in 1608. Sir Charles set about re-building the castle, a process continued by his son William Cavendish, later 1st Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War Bolsover Castle was taken by the Parliamentarians who slighted it and it fell into a ruinous state. William Cavendish added a new hall and staterooms to the Terrace Range and, by the time of his death in 1676, the castle had been restored to good order. It passed through the female line into the Bentinck family, and ultimately became one of the seats of the Dukes of Portland. After 1883 the castle was uninhabited and given to the nation by the 7th Duke of Portland in 1945. The castle is now in the care of English Heritage.</p><br>
<p>Bolsover Castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument, a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change. It is also a Grade I listed building (first listed in 1985) and recognised as an internationally important structure.</p><br>
<p>Bolsover Castle, long gallery exterior, 2008.jpgThe exterior of the long gallery</p><br>
<p>291425 3e8e7e88-by-Lynne-Glazzard.jpgThe Little Castle at Bolsover</p><br>
<p>Bolsover Castle 17th century.jpgModel of Bolsover Castle as it may have looked in the late 1600s.</p><br>
<p>The Inner Hebrides  is an archipelago off the west coast of mainland Scotland, to the south east of the Outer Hebrides. Together these two island chains form the Hebrides, which experience a mild oceanic climate. The Inner Hebrides comprise 35 inhabited islands as well as 44 uninhabited islands with an area greater than 74 acres. The main commercial activities are tourism, crofting, fishing and whisky distilling. In modern times the Inner Hebrides have formed part of two separate local government jurisdictions, one to the north and the other to the south. Together, the islands have an area of about 1,594 square miles, and had a population of 18,948 in 2011. The population density is therefore about 4.6 per km .</p><br>
<p>There are various important prehistoric structures, many of which pre-date the first written references to the islands by Roman and Greek authors. In the historic period the earliest known settlers were Picts to the north and Gaels in the southern kingdom of Dál Riada prior to the islands becoming part of the Suðreyjar kingdom of the Norse, who ruled for over 400 years until sovereignty was transferred to Scotland by the Treaty of Perth in 1266. Control of the islands was then held by various clan chiefs, principally the MacLeans, MacLeods and MacDonalds. The Highland Clearances of the 19th century had a devastating effect on many communities and it is only in recent years that population levels have ceased to decline.</p><br>
<p>Sea transport is crucial and a variety of ferry services operate to mainland Scotland and between the islands. The Gaelic language remains strong in some areas; the landscapes have inspired a variety of artists; and there is a diversity of wildlife.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The islands form a disparate archipelago. The largest islands are, from south to north, Islay, Jura, Mull, Rùm and Skye. Skye is the largest and most populous of all with an area of 1,656 km&sup2; and a population of just over 10,000.</p><br>
<p>The southern group are in Argyll, an area roughly corresponding with the heartlands of the ancient kingdom of Dál Riata and incorporated into the modern unitary council area of Argyll and Bute. The northern islands were part of the county of Inverness-shire and are now in the Highland Council area.</p><br>
<h3>Physical</h3><br>
<p>The ten largest islands are as follows.</p><br>
<p>The geology and geomorphology of the islands is varied. Some, such as Skye and Mull, are mountainous, whilst others like Tiree are relatively low-lying. The highest mountains are the Cuillins of Skye, although peaks over 300 m are common elsewhere. Much of the coastline is machair, a fertile low-lying dune pastureland. Many of the islands are swept by strong tides, and the Corryvreckan tide race between Scarba and Jura is one of the largest whirlpools in the world.</p><br>
<p>There are various smaller archipelagoes including the Ascrib Islands, Crowlin Islands, Slate Islands, Small Isles, Summer Isles and Treshnish Islands.</p><br>
<h3>Human</h3><br>
<p>The inhabited islands of the Inner Hebrides had a population of 18,257 at the 2001 census, and this had grown to 18,948 in 2011. During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702.</p><br>
<p>There are a further 44 uninhabited Inner Hebrides with an area greater than 74 acres. Records for the last date of settlement for the smaller islands are incomplete, but most of them were inhabited at some point during the Neolithic, Iron Age, Early Historic or Norse periods. In common with the other main island chains of Scotland, many of the smaller and more remote islands were abandoned during the 19th and 20th centuries, in some cases after continuous habitation since prehistoric times. These islands had been perceived as relatively self-sufficient agricultural economies, but a view developed among both islanders and outsiders that the more remote islands lacked the essential services of a modern industrial economy. However, the populations of the larger islands grew overall by more than 12% from 1981 to 2001.</p><br>
<p>The main commercial activities are tourism, crofting, fishing and whisky distilling (centred on Islay but also including Talisker in Skye, Isle of Jura Single Malt and Tobermory and Ledaig in Mull). Overall, the area is relatively reliant on primary industries and the public sector; there is a dependence on self-employment and micro-business, and most parts are defined by Highlands and Islands Enterprise as economically "Fragile Areas". However, the islands are well placed to exploit renewable energy, particularly onshore and offshore wind; and the Sleat peninsula of Skye is an example of a more economically robust area. Some of the islands have development trusts that support the local economy.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Atlantic Current creates a mild oceanic climate. Temperatures are generally cool, averaging 6.5 °C (44 °F) in January and 15.4 °C (60 °F) in July at Duntulm on the Trotternish peninsula of Skye. Tiree is one of the sunniest places in the country and had 300 days of sunshine in 1975. Trotternish typically has 200 hours of bright sunshine in May, the sunniest month.</p><br>
<h2>Prehistory</h2><br>
<p>The Hebrides were originally settled in the Mesolithic era and have a diversity of prehistoric sites. A flint arrowhead found in a field near Bridgend, Islay has been dated to 10,800 BC. This find may indicate the presence of a summer hunting party rather than permanent settlement. Burnt hazelnut shells and microscopic charcoal found at Farm Fields, Kinloch on Rùm indicate a settlement of some kind and this is amongst the oldest evidence of occupation in Scotland.</p><br>
<p>Evidence of large-scale Mesolithic nut processing, radiocarbon dated to circa 7000 BC, has been found in a midden pit at Staosnaig on Colonsay. The dig discovered the remains of hundreds of thousands of burned hazelnut shells and gives an insight into communal activity and forward planning in the period. The nuts were harvested in a single year and pollen analysis suggests that the hazel trees were all cut down at the same time. The scale of the activity, unparalleled elsewhere in Scotland, and the lack of large game on the island, suggests the possibility that Colonsay contained a community with a largely vegetarian diet for the time they spent on the island.</p><br>
<p>Three stone hearths and traces of red ochre found on Jura and dated to 6000 BC are the earliest stone-built structures found so far in Scotland. However, in general the Neolithic sites in the Inner Hebrides lack the scale and drama of those found in Orkney and the Western Isles. There are numerous Iron Age sites including the remains of Dun Ringill fort on Skye, which are similar in layout to that of both a broch and a complex Atlantic roundhouse.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The earliest extant written reference to these islands appears in Pliny the Elders Natural History, where he states that there are 30 "Hebudes". Ptolemy, writing about 80 years later, around AD 140-150 and drawing on the earlier naval expedition of Agricola, refers to the Ἐβοῦδαι ("Eboudai") ("Ebudes" or "Ebudae" in Latin translation) of which he writes that there were only five, thus possibly specifically meaning the Inner Hebrides. Pliny probably took his information from Pytheas of Massilia who visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC. It is possible that Ptolemy did so also, as Agricolas information about the west coast of Scotland was of poor quality.</p><br>
<p>Watson (1926) states that the meaning of Ptolemy&#39;s "Eboudai" is unknown and that the root may be pre-Celtic. Other early written references include the flight of the Nemed people from Ireland to "Domon and to Erdomon in the north of Alba", which is mentioned in the 12th century Lebor Gabála Érenn. Domon, meaning the "deep sea isle" refers to the Outer Hebrides and Erdomon, meaning "east of, on or near Domon" is thus the Inner Hebrides.</p><br>
<p>The individual island and place names in the Outer Hebrides have mixed Gaelic and Norse origins.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Dál Riata</h3><br>
<p>Although Ptolemy&#39;s map identifies various tribes such as the Creones that might conceivably have lived in the Inner Hebrides in the Roman era,</p><br>
<p>the first written records of life begin in the 6th century AD when the founding of the kingdom of Dál Riata is recorded. This encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and County Antrim in Ireland.</p><br>
<p>In Argyll it consisted initially of three main kindreds: Cenél Loairn in north and mid-Argyll, Cenél nÓengusa based on Islay and Cenél nGabráin based in Kintyre. By the end of the 7th century a fourth kindred, Cenél Comgaill had emerged, based in eastern Argyll.</p><br>
<p>The figure of Columba looms large in any history of Dál Riata and his founding of a monastery on Iona ensured that Dál Riata would be of great importance in the spread of Christianity in northern Britain. However, Iona was far from unique. Lismore in the territory of the Cenél Loairn, was sufficiently important for the death of its abbots to be recorded with some frequency and many smaller sites, such as on Eigg, Hinba and Tiree, are known from the annals. The kingdom&#39;s independent existence ended in the Viking Age, and it eventually merged with the lands of the Picts to form the Kingdom of Alba.</p><br>
<p>North of Dál Riata the Inner Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control although the historical record is sparse.</p><br>
<h3>Norse rule</h3><br>
<p>According to Ó Corráin (1998) "when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown, perhaps unknowable" although from 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded. "All the islands of Britain" were devastated in 794 with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806. In 870 Dumbarton was besieged by Amlaíb Conung and Ímar, "the two kings of the Northmen". It is therefore likely that Scandinavian hegemony was already significant on the western coasts of Scotland by then. In the 9th century the first references to the Gallgáedil (i.e. "foreign Gaels") appear. This term was variously used in succeeding centuries to refer to individuals of mixed Scandinavian-Celtic descent and/or culture who became dominant in south-west Scotland, parts of Northern England and the isles.</p><br>
<p>The early 10th century are an obscure period so far as the Hebrides are concerned</p><br>
<p>It is difficult to reconcile the records of the Irish annals with Norse sources such as the Orkneyinga Saga but it is likely that Norwegian and Gallgáedil Uí Ímair warlords fought for control for much of period from the 9th to the 12th centuries. In 990 Sigurd the Stout, Earl of Orkney took command of the Hebrides, a position he retained for most of the period until he was killed at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014.</p><br>
<p>By the late 12th century Irish influence became a significant feature of island life and Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó, the High King of Ireland took possession of Mann and the Isles until 1072. The records for the rulers of the Hebrides are obscured again until the arrival of Godred Crovan as King of Dublin and the Isles. It is not clear the extent to which Ui Briain dominance was now asserted in the islands north of Man, but growing Irish influence in these seas brought a rapid and decisive response from Norway.</p><br>
<p>Magnus Barelegs had re-established direct Norwegian overlordship by 1098.</p><br>
<p>A second expedition in 1102 saw incursions into Ireland but in August 1103 he was killed fighting in Ulster. The next king of the isles was Lagmann Godredsson and there followed a succession of Godred Crovan&#39;s descendants who, (as vassals of the kings of Norway) ruled the Hebrides north of Ardnamurchan for the next 160 years. However, their control of the southern Inner Hebrides was lost with the emergence of Somerled, the self-styled Lord of Argyle.</p><br>
<p>For a while Somerled took control of Mann and the Hebrides in toto, but he met his death in 1164 during an invasion of the Scottish mainland. At this point Godred the Black, grandson of Godred Crovan re-took possession of the northern Hebrides and the southern isles were distributed amongst Somerleds sons, his descendants eventually becoming known as the Lords of the Isles, and giving rise to Clan MacDougall, Clan Donald and Clan Macruari. However, both during and after Somerled&#39;s life the Scottish monarchs sought to take a control of the islands he and his descendants held. This strategy eventually led to an invasion by Haakon Haakonarson, King of Norway. After the stalemate of the Battle of Largs, Haakon retreated to Orkney, where he died in 1263. Following this expedition, the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown "had of old therein" were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth.</p><br>
<h3>Clans and Scottish rule</h3><br>
<p>The Lords of the Isles, a phrase first recorded in 1336, would continue to rule the Inner Hebrides as well as part of the Western Highlands as subjects of the King of Scots until John MacDonald, fourth Lord of the Isles, squandered the familys powerful position. Through a secret treaty with Edward IV of England, negotiated at Ardtornish Castle and signed in 1462, he made himself a servant of the English crown. When James III of Scotland found out about the treaty in 1476, he issued a sentence of forfeiture for MacDonalds lands. Some were restored for a promise of good behaviour, but MacDonald was unable to control his son Aonghas Óg, who defeated him at the Battle of Bloody Bay fought of the coast of Mull near Tobermory in 1481. A further rebellion by his nephew, Alexander of Lochalsh provoked an exasperated James IV to forfeit the lands for the last time in 1493.</p><br>
<p>The most powerful clans on Skye in the post-Norse period were Clan MacLeod, originally based in Trotternish, and Clan MacDonald of Sleat. Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles, the Mackinnons also emerged as an independent clan, whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird. The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods, and an attempt by the former to murder church-goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg, resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578.</p><br>
<p>After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops. Her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye and she is buried at Kilmuir. She was visited by Samuel Johnson and James Boswell during their 1773 Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland and written on her gravestone are Johnson&#39;s words that hers was "A name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour". In the wake of the rebellion the clan system was broken up and islands of the Hebrides became a series of landed estates.</p><br>
<h3>British era</h3><br>
<p>With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707 the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain, but the clans loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong. A considerable number of islesmen "came out" in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the "15" and again in the 1745 rising including Macleod of Dunvegan and MacLea of Lismore. The aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden, which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration, was widely felt. The British governments strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English-speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them. This may have brought peace to the islands, but in the following century it came at a terrible price.</p><br>
<p>The early 19th century was a time of improvement and population growth. Roads and quays were built, the slate industry became a significant employer on Easdale and surrounding islands, and the construction of the Crinan and Caledonian canals and other engineering works such as Telfords "Bridge across the Atlantic" improved transport and access. However, in the mid-19th century, the inhabitants of many parts of the Hebrides were devastated by the clearances, which destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms. The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands kelp industry that thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic. The "Battle of the Braes" involved a demonstration against lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices. This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission, which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters&#39; Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order.</p><br>
<p>For those who remained new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle, commercial fishing and tourism. Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelagos populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries. Juras population fell from 1300 in 1831 to less than 250 by 1961 and Mull&#39;s from 10,600 in 1821 to less than 3,000 in 1931. Lengthy periods of continuous occupation notwithstanding, some of the smaller islands were abandoned - the Treshnish Isles in 1934, Handa in 1948, and Eilean Macaskin in the 1880s among them.</p><br>
<p>Nonetheless, there were continuing gradual economic improvements, among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design and in recent years, with the assistance of Highlands and Islands Enterprise many of the island&#39;s populations have begun to increase after decades of decline.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Scheduled ferry services between the Inner Hebrides and the Scottish mainland operate on various routes including: Tayinloan, Kintyre to Gigha; Kennacraig, Kintyre to Islay; Oban to Mull, Coll and Tiree and Colonsay; Mallaig to Armadale, Skye and Eigg, Muck, Rùm & Canna; and Glenelg to Kyle Rhea on the Sleat peninsula, Skye.</p><br>
<p>Some ferries reach the Inner Hebrides from other islands such as the Seil to Luing route, Fionnphort on the Ross of Mull to Iona, Sconser to Raasay and Port Askaig to Feolin, Jura. There is also a service to and form the Outer Hebrides from Tarbert, Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist to Uig, Skye and from Castlebay, Barra to Tiree.</p><br>
<p>National Rail services are available for onward journeys, from stations at Oban, which has direct services to Glasgow and from Kyle of Lochalsh to Inverness. There are scheduled flights from Broadford Airfield Skye, Colonsay Airport, Islay Airport near Port Ellen and Tiree Airport.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide, and there are numerous sites of wrecked ships. Lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at various locations.</p><br>
<p>Dubh Artach lighthouse is located on a remote rock and warns seafarers away from the area itself and the nearby Torran Rocks. Originally it was considered to be an impossible site for a light, but the loss of the steamer Bussorah with all thirty-three hands on her maiden voyage in 1863 and of an astonishing 24 vessels in the area in a storm on 30–31 December 1865 encouraged positive action. Skerryvore is another remote lighthouse in the vicinity and at a height of 48 m it is the tallest in Scotland.</p><br>
<h2>Gaelic language</h2><br>
<p>There are about 4,000 Gaelic speakers in the Inner Hebrides, equal to 20% of the population of the archipelago.</p><br>
<p>There have been speakers of Goidelic languages in the Inner Hebrides since the time of Columba or before, and the modern variant of Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) remains strong in some parts. However, the Education (Scotland) Act 1872 led to generations of Gaels being forbidden to speak their native language in the classroom, and is now recognised as having dealt a major blow to the language. Children were being beaten for speaking Gaelic in school as late as the 1930s. More recently the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act was enacted by the Scottish Parliament in 2005 in order to provide continuing support for the language.</p><br>
<p>By the time of the 2001 census Kilmuir parish in Skye had 47% Gaelic speakers, with Skye overall having an unevenly distributed 31%. At that time Tiree had 48% of the population Gaelic-speaking, Lismore 29%, Islay 24%, Coll 12%, Jura 11%, Mull 13% and Iona 5%. Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, a Scottish Gaelic college based on Skye.</p><br>
<h2>The arts</h2><br>
<p>Hebridean landscapes have inspired a variety of musicians, writers and artists. The Hebrides, also known as Fingals Cave, is a famous overture written by Felix Mendelssohn inspired by his visit to Staffa. Contemporary musicians associated with the islands include Ian Anderson, Donovan and Runrig. Enyas song "Ebudæ" from Shepherd Moons is based on a traditional waulking song.</p><br>
<p>The poet Sorley MacLean was born on Raasay, the setting for his best known poem, Hallaig. George Orwell wrote much of the novel 1984 whilst living at Barnhill on Jura and J.M. Barrie wrote a screenplay for the 1924 film adaptation of Peter Pan whilst on Eilean Shona. Cressida Cowell, the author of How to Train Your Dragon, spent childhood summers in the Inner Hebrides and has stated that they are "one of the most beautiful places on Earth" and "the kind of place where you expect to see dragons overhead".</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>In some respects the Hebrides generally lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain, with for example only half the number of mammalian species the latter has. However, these islands have much to offer the naturalist. Observing the local abundance found on Skye in the 18th century Samuel Johnson noted that:</p><br>
<p>In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, rock dove, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye, golden eagle and white-tailed sea eagle. The last named was re-introduced to Rùm in 1975 and has successfully spread to various neighbouring islands, including Mull. There is a small population of red-billed chough concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay.</p><br>
<p>Mountain hare (apparently absent from Skye in the 18th century) and rabbit are now abundant and predated on by wild cat and pine marten. Red deer are common on the hills and the grey seal and common seal are present around the coasts of Scotland in internationally important numbers, with colonies of the former found on Oronsay and the Treshnish Isles and the latter most abundant in the Firth of Lorn. The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew. Offshore minke whales, killer whales, basking sharks, porpoises and dolphins are among the sea life that can be seen and edible crab and oyster are also found, in for example, the Sound of Scalpay. There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs.</p><br>
<p>Heather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is abundant and there is a diversity of arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal.</p><br>
<p>Kish  was an ancient city of Sumer in Mesopotamia, considered to have been located near the modern Tell al-Uhaymir in the Babil Governorate of Iraq, east of Babylon and 80 km south of Baghdad.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Kish was occupied from the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100 BC), gaining prominence as one of the pre-eminent powers in the region during the early dynastic period.</p><br>
<p>The Sumerian king list that Kish was the first city to have kings following the deluge, beginning with Jushur. Jushur&#39;s successor is called Kullassina-bel, but this is actually a sentence in Akkadian meaning "All of them were lord". Thus, some scholars have suggested that this may have been intended to signify the absence of a central authority in Kish for a time. The names of the next nine kings of Kish preceding Etana are all Akkadian words for animals, e.g. Zuqaqip "scorpion". The East Semitic nature of these and other early names associated with Kish reveals that its population had a strong Semitic (Akkadian speaking) component from the dawn of recorded history, Ignace Gelb identified Kish as the center of the earliest East Semitic culture which he calls the Kish civilization.</p><br>
<p>The twelfth king of Kish appearing on the Sumerian king list, Etana, is noted as "the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries". Although his reign has yet to be archaeologically attested, his name is found in later legendary tablets, and Etana is sometimes regarded as the first king and founder of Kish. The twenty-first king of Kish on the list, Enmebaragesi, who is said to have captured the weapons of Elam, is the first name confirmed by archaeological finds from his reign. He is also known through other literary references, in which he and his son Aga of Kish are portrayed as contemporary rivals of Dumuzid, the Fisherman, and Gilgamesh, early rulers of Uruk.</p><br>
<p>Some early kings of Kish are known through archaeology, but are not named on the King list. These include Utug or Uhub, said to have defeated Hamazi in the earliest days, and Mesilim, who built temples in Adab and Lagash, where he seems to have exercised some control.</p><br>
<p>The Third Dynasty of Kish is unique in that it begins with a woman, previously a tavern keeper, Kubau, as "king". She was later deified as the goddess Kheba.</p><br>
<p>Afterwards, although its military and economic power was diminished, Kish retained a strong political and symbolic significance. Just as with Nippur to the south, control of Kish was a prime element in legitimizing dominance over the north of Mesopotamia (Assyria, Subartu). Because of the city&#39;s symbolic value, strong rulers later claimed the traditional title "King of Kish", even if they were from Akkad, Ur, Assyria, Isin, Larsa or Babylon. One of the earliest to adopt this title upon subjecting Kish to his empire was King Mesannepada of Ur. A few governors of Kish for other powers in later times are also known.</p><br>
<p>Sargon of Akkad, the founder of the Akkadian Empire came from the area nearby Kish, called Azupiranu. He would later declare himself the king of Kish, as an attempt to signify his connection to the religiously important area. In Akkadian times the city&#39;s patron deity was Zababa (or Zamama), along with his wife, the goddess Inanna.</p><br>
<p>Kish continued to be occupied through the pre-Babylonian, old Babylonian, Kassite, and Neo-Assyrian Empire and Neo-Babylonian periods, and into classical Seleucid times, before being abandoned.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The Kish archaeological site is actually an oval area roughly 8 by, transected by the dry former bed of the Euphrates River, encompassing around 40 mounds, the largest being Uhaimir and Ingharra. The most notable mounds are:-</p><br>
<p>Tell Uhaimir - believed to be the location of the city of Kish. It means "the red" after the red bricks of the ziggurat there.</p><br>
<p>Tell Ingharra - believed to be the location of Hursagkalamma, east of Kish home of a temple of Inanna.</p><br>
<p>Tell Khazneh</p><br>
<p>Tell el-Bender - held Parthian material</p><br>
<p>Mound W - where a number of Neo-Assyrian tablets were discovered</p><br>
<p>After irregularly excavated tablets began appearing at the beginning of the twentieth century, François Thureau-Dangin identified the site as being Kish. Those tablets ended up in a variety of museums.</p><br>
<p>A French archaeological team under Henri de Genouillac excavated at Tell Uhaimir between 1912 and 1914, finding some 1,400 Old Babylonian tablets which were distributed to the Istanbul Archaeology Museum and the Louvre.</p><br>
<p>Henri de Genouillac, Fouilles françaises d&#39;El-`Akhymer, Champion,</p><br>
<p>1924-25 Later, a joint Field Museum and University of Oxford team under Stephen Langdon excavated from 1923 to 1933, with the recovered materials split between Chicago and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.</p><br>
<p>The actual excavations at Tell Uhaimir were led initially by E. MacKay and later by L. C. Watelin. Work on the faunal and flora remains was conducted by Henry Field.</p><br>
<p>More recently, a Japanese team from the Kokushikan University led by Ken Matsumoto excavated at Tell Uhaimir in 1988, 2000, and 2001. The final season lasted only one week.</p><br>
<p>K. Matsumoto and H. Oguchi, News from Kish: The 2001 Japanese Work,</p><br>
<p>al-Rafidan, vol. 25, pp. 1-8, 2004</p><br>
<p>The Firth of Clyde is an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean off the southwest coast of Scotland, named for the River Clyde which empties into it. It encloses the largest and deepest coastal waters in the British Isles, sheltered from the Atlantic Ocean by the Kintyre peninsula which encloses the outer firth in Argyll and Ayrshire. The Kilbrannan Sound is a large arm of the Firth of Clyde, separating the Kintyre Peninsula from the Isle of Arran. Within the Firth of Clyde is another major island – the Isle of Bute. Given its strategic location, at the entrance to the middle/upper Clyde, Bute played a vitally important military  role during World War II.</p><br>
<p>The Firth&#39;s climate enjoys the benefit of the Gulf Stream from America.</p><br>
<p>At its entrance the firth is some 26 mi wide. Its upper reaches include an area where it is joined by Loch Long and the Gare Loch. This includes the large anchorage off Greenock known as the Tail of the Bank in reference to the sandbar which separates the firth from the estuary of the River Clyde. The Clyde is still almost 2 mi wide at the sandbar, and its upper tidal limit is at the tidal weir adjacent to Glasgow Green.</p><br>
<p>The cultural and geographical distinction between the firth and the River Clyde is vague, and people will sometimes refer to Dumbarton as being on the Firth of Clyde, while the population of Port Glasgow and Greenock frequently refer to the firth to their north as "the river". In Scottish Gaelic the landward end is called Linne Chluaidh (meaning the same as the English), while the area around the south of Arran, Kintyre and Ayrshire/Galloway is An Linne Ghlas.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Firth encompasses many islands and peninsulas and has twelve ferry routes connecting them to the mainland and each other. Sometimes called the Clyde Waters, this water body is customarily considered an element of the Irish Sea. The ferry services are run by Caledonian MacBrayne and by Western Ferries and many of the routes are lifeline services for communities living in remote areas. A great number of sea lochs adjoin the Firth, the largest being Loch Fyne.</p><br>
<h3>Cowal Peninsula</h3><br>
<p>The Cowal peninsula extends into the Firth of Clyde and forms the main upper firth west shoreline. The main town on the Cowal peninsula is Dunoon.</p><br>
<h4>Ferries</h4><br>
<p>These routes across the Firth of Clyde save time, rather than traveling "round by road", via Loch Eck side (A815 road), the Rest and be thankful (A83 road) and Loch Lomond side (A82 road).</p><br>
<p>The service between Dunoon and Gourock in Inverclyde, operated by the Caledonian MacBrayne subsidiary Argyll Ferries is a foot passenger only service. This service connects directly with the Abellio ScotRail service to Glasgow.</p><br>
<p>Western Ferries operate the service between Hunters Quay and McInroy&#39;s Point near Gourock and carry all types of vehicular transport and foot passengers.</p><br>
<h3>Towns and villages along the shoreline</h3><br>
<p>This lists the major towns and some of the numerous villages along the firth (not the River Clyde or connecting lochs).</p><br>
<h3>Islands in the Clyde</h3><br>
<p>There are many islands in the firth. The largest all have thriving communities and regular ferry services connecting them to the mainland. They are:</p><br>
<p>Arran</p><br>
<p>Bute</p><br>
<p>Cumbrae</p><br>
<h3>Sea lochs off the Clyde</h3><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Clyde formed an important sea route from the earliest times, and the Battle of Largs in 1263 marked the turning point for the end of Norse ambitions in Britain. Progressively from the 16th century onwards the Clyde became the conduit for commerce and industry, including herring, timber, wine, sugar, tobacco, textiles, iron and steel, coal, oil, chemicals, distilling and brewing, ships, locomotives, vehicles and other manufactured products. During World War II Glasgow and the Clyde became Britains main entry point for Allied merchant shipping, military personnel and equipment, and for the assembly, despatch and control of ocean convoys. The Clyde formed the largest base of naval ships. Among many wartime innovations to support air, maritime and territorial combat the worlds first deep water test of a submarine oil pipeline was conducted in 1942 on a pipeline laid across the Firth of Clyde in Operation Pluto.</p><br>
<p>In the middle of the 19th century the sport of yachting became popular on the Clyde. The area became famous worldwide for its significant contribution to yachting and yachtbuilding with notable designers including: William Fife III; Alfred Mylne; G L Watson; David Boyd. It was also the location of many famous yacht yards. Clyde-built wooden yachts are still known for quality and style today.</p><br>
<p>With the advent of tourism in Victorian times, the area became popular with Glaswegians and residents of neighbouring towns and counties who travelled "doon the watter" on Clyde steamers to holiday in the picturesque seaside towns and villages that line the firth, with the more wealthy building substantial holiday homes along its coasts. Many towns such as Gourock, Largs, Ayr, Dunoon, Rothesay flourished during this period and became fully fledged resorts with well-appointed hotels and attractions. Golf courses increased in large number, including major championship courses. The steam-powered still makes cruising trips to these coastal towns, in addition to regular services. Tourism, sport and recreation, and heritage history attract visitors from across the world. The Firth is ringed by many castles and buildings of historical importance which are open to the public, including Inveraray Castle, Brodick Castle, the opulent Mount Stuart House on the Isle of Bute, and Culzean Castle, which is the most visited attraction owned by National Trust for Scotland. Ocean liners are frequent callers at Greenock, and Glasgow International Airport and Glasgow Prestwick Airport are nearby. Rail services to and from the coast, including links to Oban and Fort William, are frequent, with city terminals in Glasgow and Edinburgh. Daily ferry services connect with Belfast.</p><br>
<p>The "lower Clyde" shipyards of Greenock and Port Glasgow, most notably Scott Lithgow, played an important role in shipbuilding, with the being the first successful steamboat in Europe, and a large proportion of the world&#39;s shipping being built there until well into the 20th century. In more recent times the natural beauty of the firth has been compromised in places by a succession of industrial and military developments along the shoreline, including Hunterston and Hunterston deepwater terminal, while at the same time shipbuilding has declined. In the upper Clyde two major shipyards continue at Glasgow Govan and Scotstoun, run by BAE, whose major client is the Royal Navy. Today only one lower Clyde shipyard exists, Ferguson Shipbuilders, next to Newark Castle, Port Glasgow, The Garvel dry dock in Greenock continues in operation for ship repair, and the large Inchgreen dry dock in Greenock is in occasional use. The sites of former shipyards are being regenerated by housing, leisure facilities and commercial premises.</p><br>
<h2>Marine wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Common and grey seals abound in the firth. Harbour porpoises are also common and while dolphins are much less so, they have been spotted in the upper reaches of the firth in the summer of 2005. Whales do not favour the Clyde and although there have been instances of larger whales beaching themselves or becoming stranded in the upper firth, only smaller pilot or minke whales seem to visit with any kind of regularity.</p><br>
<p>In 2005 the firth was listed as having the 2nd highest incidence of basking shark sightings in Scotland (after The Minch). In particular these huge sharks seem to favour the warm, shallow waters surrounding Pladda. Although at one time heavily fished from the Firth&#39;s many fishing towns, the only catches remaining in Clyde waters today of commercial interest are prawns, lobster and herring. Mussels and crayfish remain important.</p><br>
<p>There is a Marine Biological Station run by the Universities of Glasgow and London on Great Cumbrae.</p><br>
<p>In September 2008, Scotland&#39;s first No Take Zone (NTZ) was introduced in Lamlash Bay, Isle of Arran. This was instigated by a community effort driven by the Community of Arran Seabed Trust (C.O.A.S.T). The NTZ was specifically introduced to protect delicate communities such as maerl. Maerl is a very slow-growing (1 mm per year) coral-like calcareous red algae and is an important Scottish species. Maerl beds are reservoirs of biodiversity, important both as nursery grounds for young scallops and young fish. Studies show that organic waste from fish farms significantly reduces live maerl and that scallop dredging has profound and long lasting impacts. Scallop dredging on a maerl bed has been found to kill over 70% of live maerl, with no discernible recovery over the following four years. Recovery of maerl beds would be expected to require many years without disturbance.</p><br>
<h2>Shipping in the Firth</h2><br>
<p>The Firth of Clyde like the River Clyde has historically been an important centre of shipbuilding and shipping. In addition to the shipbuilding and engineering centres up river of Glasgow, Govan, Clydebank, Dumbarton and Renfrew the lower river developed major yards at Greenock, Port Glasgow and smaller ones at Irvine, Ardrossan, Troon and Campbeltown and boatyards including Hunters Quay, Port Bannatyne and Fairlie. Ferguson Shipbuilders yard, adjacent to Newark Castle, Port Glasgow, remains. Greenock is the site of one of the world&#39;s largest dry dock and ship-repair facilities at Inchgreen. The dry dock there is 305 m long and 44 m wide and is operated by Northwestern Shiprepairers Limited using the name Scott Lithgow, although unrelated to the famous Port Glasgow Scott Lithgow shipbuilding company.</p><br>
<p>The Firth of Clyde has one of the deepest sea entrance channels in northern Europe, which can accommodate the largest Capesize vessels afloat, and as such the Clyde is one of the UK&#39;s leading ports, handling some 7.5 million tonnes of cargo each year. Hunterston Terminal was constructed to bring in bulk ore, but now mainly deals with coal imports. Supertankers up to 324,000 tonnes travel up the firth to deliver crude oil to Finnart Oil Terminal in Loch Long, which is connected by pipeline to the Grangemouth Refinery on the Firth of Forth. A second pipeline brings back refined oil products for export in smaller oil tankers, mainly to Northern Ireland.</p><br>
<p>Greenock&#39;s Ocean Terminal facility handles cargo from smaller container ships. More recently, regular cruise liner traffic has built up, making the port very busy in season. Clydeport, North Ayrshire Council and Scottish Enterprise propose a £200m international deep-water container terminal, also at Hunterston, which would effectively act as a worldwide gateway port, and possibly become the major container port for the northern half of Europe. Initial environmental and economic impact studies are currently being undertaken.</p><br>
<p>The Royal Navy has a significant presence on the Clyde, at HMNB Clyde on the Gare Loch and on Loch Long, connected to the nuclear stores in Coulport and Glen Douglas. The dockyard engineering and operations are managed by Babcock International, while one of the three main ports providing marine services support vessels is at Greenock, previously operated directly by the Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service.</p><br>
<h2>Lighthouses and navigation beacons</h2><br>
<p>There are lighthouses at:</p><br>
<p>Cloch Point on the Inverclyde coast.</p><br>
<p>Toward Point on the Southern tip of the Cowal Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Little Cumbrae</p><br>
<p>Pladda</p><br>
<p>There are navigation beacons at:</p><br>
<p>The Gantocks Rocks and Navigation Beacon, off the coast at Dunoon, Cowal Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Samsø  is a Danish island in the Kattegat 15 km off the Jutland Peninsula. Samsø is located in Samsø municipality. The community has 3,724 inhabitants   called Samsings and is 114 km² in area. Due to its central location, the island was used during the Viking Age as a meeting place. The etymology of the island&#39;s name is unknown.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, Samsø won a government competition to become a model renewable energy community. Now 100% of its electricity comes from wind power and biomass.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Samsø is of unknown origin. The name is known from 1075 as Samse. The word is a simplex and the -ø ending is thus a later transformation, indicating that the name Samsø is not related to the Danish word and letter ø.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ballen&#39;s beach and village are popular with visitors. The island is served by a bus service which runs around the island, including the two ferry terminals in Sælvig and Ballen. In clear weather, the peninsula of Helgenæs to the north is visible.</p><br>
<p>Geographically, the island divides into three areas:</p><br>
<p>the North Island</p><br>
<p>the Stavns Fjord</p><br>
<p>the South Island</p><br>
<p>The North Island is divided from the South Island by the artificial Kanhave canal. Here a larger part of the countryside is uncultivated and it presents a wavy landscape of meadows and small patches of woodland and heath. Like the rest of Samsø, the coastline is characterized by steep cliffs and stony beaches, with some sandy beaches in between suited for bathing. Issehoved is Samsøs northernmost point and presents what have been described as a miniature of Skagens "Grenen". The small towns of Nordby, Mårup and Langør is situated on the North Island. Just north of Nordby is the worlds biggest permanent labyrinth named Labyrinten&#39;, founded in the year 2000. It comprise a 60,000 m² patch of conifer woodland, grown on a previous christmas tree plantation. Northwest of Nordby, is the hill of Ballebjerg, Samsøs highest point, reaching 64 m. Near the village of Mårup is the harbour of Mårup Havn. In the summer months (17 June to 22 August) the old wooden freight-ship M/S Tunø, ferry passengers back and forth from here to the island of Tunø just west of Samsø, two days a week. Other two days of the week, the same boat is offering seal-safaris from Langør at Stavns Fjord.</p><br>
<p>The shallow lagoon of Stavns Fjord, houses most of the smaller islands of Samsø municipality. The largest of them is Hjortholm and most of the rest are just small islets really, but have been named individually. The lagoon is separated from the sea of Kattegat by the 7 km long sandbar of Besser Rev. It is possible to walk on the reef all the way to the tip at low tide (ebb), except when the birds are breeding here. It is important to be aware of the tides, as there can be strong and dangerous currents at the reefs junction to Samsø during high tide (flow). East of Stavns Fjord, in Kattegat, lies a group of small islands (Kyholm, Lindholm, Rumpen, Vejrø) with a couple of sandbars. The entire area is to be protected.</p><br>
<p>The South Island is home to the seat of the mayor and Samsø&#39;s largest town Tranebjerg, but there are many other hamlets and villages (18 in all) spread across the countryside. The village of Ballen, lies on the east coast and is also home to the Energy Academy. Most of the land on the South Island is cultivated, but there are spots of nature like the forest Brattingsborg Skov and the cliffs, shrubs and beach meadows on the southcoast. Just south of the Kanhave canal is Samsø Airport.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>People have lived and hunted on Samsø from the earliest of times, when the ice receded at the end of the last Ice Age. Samsø first became an island for approximately 9,000 years ago and there are several traces like dolmens, burial mounds, passage graves, kitchen middens, etc. from the Stone Age and Bronze Age cultures across the landscape. Excavations at Tønnesminde, for example, show evidence of human habitation from the Stone Age through the Viking Age.</p><br>
<h3>Norse mythology</h3><br>
<p>On this island, Saxo Grammaticus relates that there was a legendary battle, when the Swedish champion Hjalmar and his friend Orvar-Odd fought against the twelve sons of the Swedish berserker Arngrim. This battle was once famous, since it also figures in Faroese ballads, in Orvar-Odd&#39;s saga and in Hervarar saga.</p><br>
<p>According to the Hervarar saga and the Waking of Angantyr, the mounds of the slain berserkers were haunted. This did not stop Arngrim&#39;s granddaughter Hervor from approaching the mounds and demanding the enchanted sword Tyrfing from her father Angantyr.</p><br>
<p>"Samsey" (-ey being an earlier Norse form of -ø) is the island upon which Odin, under the name Jalk, learned Seid magic.</p><br>
<h3>Kanhave canal</h3><br>
<p>At its narrowest place, a canal was dug across the island. The canal was about 500 m long and 11 m wide and could in its time be navigated by vessels with a draught of up to 1 m. It was dug and clad with wooden linings in the years 726-729 AD; the last part of the Scandinavian Iron Age. Kanhave canal is one of the largest known engineering projects of the Vikings and it is a sign of the centralized power of the time. Kanhave canal is thought of as instrumental to dominating the sea of Kattegat. There are plans to dig out the canal again.</p><br>
<h3>Medieval fortresses</h3><br>
<p>All the known sources suggests, that the island was the property of the crown throughout medieval times, but it was an age of conflict and insecurity nevertheless, as a total of five fortresses were built on Samsø in the Middle Ages; Vesborg where the lighthouse is nowadays, Gammel Brattingsborg where the town of Tranebjerg is now, Hjortholm on the islet of the same name in the Stavns Fjord lagoon, Bisgård at the bishop&#39;s palace (official residence) in the parish of Onsbjerg and the small fortification of Blafferholm in the garden of Brattingsborg manor. None of them are left standing today. Only the castle hills and the archaeological excavations of the foundations remains. The National Museum of Denmark initiated thorough archaeological investigations of the fortification sites a few years ago and the field work terminated in 2012.</p><br>
<h3>The quarantine of Kyholm</h3><br>
<p>From 1831-1857 there was a plague- and cholera-quarantine on the tiny island of Kyholm just east of Samsø. Here, ships returning from long voyages had to dock, if they had disease on board. There is an abandoned cemetery of around 100 graves on the island. Kyholm is accessible year round, but it is advised not to be around, when the birds are breeding.</p><br>
<h2>Agriculture and sustainable production</h2><br>
<p>Agriculture has been the primary occupation on Samsø for millennia and nearly all of the island are cultured landscapes. Nowadays, farming is still an important business and the biggest contributor to the islands economy, but compared to the rest of Denmark, it has developed in its own direction. Free range farming is very prominent, and the agricultural produce comprise mostly potatoes, various other vegetables and berries as well as some animal husbandry. In the 2000s, especially the vegetable and berry production has increased, as the Samsø brand has become more widely known and popular. At the same time, packaging and industrial processing is increasingly taken care of on the island before shipping, again increasing the local revenue of the farming trade overall. Close to 16% of the islanders work in the fishing and farming sector, not including derived labour, compared to 3.5% countrywide.</p><br>
<p>In Denmark, Samsø is well known for its early harvest of new potatoes. The first few pounds of these potatoes usually fetch prices around £100, and are considered a great delicacy. Samsø is popular among French, Welsh and Irish people for strawberry picking during the months of June and July every year.</p><br>
<p>Ecological agriculture and production is significant on Samsø, with a broad network of cooperating associations. It comprise farming of a large variety of vegetables, grains and fruits, livestock meat and products (lambs, sheep, yarn, cows, pigs, horses, donkeys, goats, chickens, eggs), a dairy, a brewery, restaurants and cafés, candy production, permaculture and forest garden experiments. There are several plans for extending the overall ecological production and broaden the industry (a slaughterhouse, orangery, forest gardens and education), with a wish for creating more jobs and stimulate settlements on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Renewable energy</h2><br>
<p>In 1997, Samsø won a government competition to become a model renewable energy community. At the time, Samsø was entirely dependent on oil and coal, both imported from the mainland.</p><br>
<p>An offshore wind farm comprising 10 turbines (making a total of 21 altogether including land-based windmills), was completed in 2007, funded by the islanders. The people of Samsø heat their homes with straw burned in a central heating system and they power some vehicles on biofuel which they also grow. Now 100% of the island&#39;s electricity comes from wind power, with surplus electricity exported to the mainland grid, and 75% of its heat comes from local solar power and biomass energy. An Energy Academy has opened in Ballen, with a visitor education center. The academy is currently working towards making Samsø 100% fossil fuel free.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Ulrik Christian Gyldenløve, Count of Samsø (1678 – 1719) was a Danish navy Admiral and Governor of Iceland. He was an acknowledged illegitimate son of King Christian V of Denmark and his officially acknowledged royal mistress Sophie Amalie Moth</p><br>
<p>Carl Frederik Sørensen (1818 in Besser, Samsø – 1879) was a Danish artist who specialized in marine painting.</p><br>
<p>Lotte Glob (born 1944 in Samsø) is a Danish ceramic artist now living in the north of Scotland. She is the daughter of Peter Glob</p><br>
<p>Nordby Bakke Orehoved 20130710 104328.jpgNordby Bakker</p><br>
<p>Ballebjerg Samsø.jpgBallebjerg (Nordby Bakker), the highest point on Samsø.</p><br>
<p>Labyrinten.jpgInside Labyrinten, the largest permanent maze in the world.</p><br>
<p>Nordby Kirke (Samsø Kommune).JPGNordby Church.</p><br>
<p>Nordby Samsø 20130708 151341.jpgThe village bell in Nordby</p><br>
<p>Ved kæret nordby.jpgVillage pond in Nordby</p><br>
<p>Stavns Fjord - panoramio.jpgStavns Fjord</p><br>
<p>Langør set fra Kanhavekanalen - panoramio.jpgLangør across Stavns Fjord</p><br>
<p>Tranebjerg Kirke - panoramio - Jens Cederskjold.jpgTranebjerg church</p><br>
<p>Tranebjerg set fra Møllebakken - panoramio.jpgTranebjerg</p><br>
<p>Udsigt fra Dyret 2.jpgView from Dyret, the highest hill on the South Island.</p><br>
<p>Kolby Kirke - panoramio.jpgKolby church</p><br>
<p>Kolby Mølle - panoramio.jpgKolby grain mill (Ecomuseum Samsø)</p><br>
<p>Gammeldags pløjning på Fredensdal.jpgEcomuseum Samsø</p><br>
<p>Brattingsborg Gods 20130712 102954.jpgBrattingsborg Manor</p><br>
<p>Ertholmene, old spelling Ærtholme, so named because they are very small , generally called Christiansø, also by Statistics Denmark and the Church of Denmark, is a small archipelago situated approximately 19 km  northeast of Gudhjem, Bornholm or 27 km  east of Sandvig in the Baltic Sea. This is 106 miles  southeast of the capital of Denmark, Copenhagen, as the crow flies.</p><br>
<p>Its permanent population has been as follows, each year 1 January: 2002: 106 inhabitants; 2007: 95 inh. 2010: 101 inh. 2012: 103 inh. 2014: 90 inh. 2016: 91 inh. 2017: 78 inh.</p><br>
<p>Its area is 39 hectare (0.16 sq mi).</p><br>
<p>Ertholmene belong to Denmark and have the country&#39;s easternmost point.</p><br>
<p>Statistically together with Bornholm it is part of Landsdel Bornholm.</p><br>
<p>Ertholmene make up the Parish of Christiansø in the Church of Denmark (Danish Christiansø Sogn), served by Christiansø Church. On 1 January 2017 out of 78 inhabitants in total there were 69 members of the Church of Denmark (88.46% of the population).</p><br>
<p>Ertholmene consists of three main islands, Christiansø (named after King Christian V), Frederiksø (named after King Frederick IV) and Græsholm, plus a number of minor rocks and skerries.</p><br>
<p>The best known of the latter are Tat and Østerskær, Denmark&#39;s easternmost point.</p><br>
<p>Christiansø makes up 22.3 hectares (0.0861 sq mi), Frederiksø 4 (0.01544 sq mi), and Græsholm 11 hectares (0.04247 sq mi). Only Christiansø and Frederiksø are inhabited, while Græsholm is a bird reserve. The sound between Christiansø and Frederiksø, a well-sheltered natural harbour, is crossed by a pedestrian bridge that is pulled aside to accommodate larger vessels.</p><br>
<p>Ertholmene have never been part of a municipality, county, or region. They are administered by the Ministry of Defence.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fishermen from Bornholm have used Ertholmene for temporary shelter since the Middle Ages. The first permanent settlement was the result of the Danish-Swedish conflicts in the late 17th century. As Denmark needed a naval base in the central Baltic Sea, a fort was built on Christiansø and Frederiksø in 1684 which served as an outpost for the Danish Navy until 1855. Christiansø Church originally served the garrison. The population peaked at the census in 1810 which showed 829 inhabitants. They were soldiers and were there because of the Gunboat War. Many of the historical buildings now serve as living quarters for the local population, and some are rented, year after year, to regular summer residents. The islands&#39; external appearance has changed very little in over 300 years. Girdled by thick granite walls with old cannons pointed seaward, Christiansø is a picturesque tourist spot seemingly frozen in time. A former part of the fort, Store Tårn has housed the Christiansø Lighthouse for the past 200 years, and a small round tower on Frederiksø, Lille Tårn, serves as a museum.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative status</h2><br>
<p>The islands are an unincorporated area that does not belong to either a municipality or a region. Instead they are state property governed by an administrator, appointed by the Danish ministry of defence, with the responsibility being the tasks normally performed by municipalities and other public sector civil services. The major sources of income are fishery and tourism. There are 80,000 tourists per year, mostly day visitors arriving via Bornholm. Ertholmene is also a popular destination for yachts.</p><br>
<h3>Taxation</h3><br>
<p>The islanders, who do not pay municipal taxes of any kind and were never part of a municipality, will be exempt from the central government "Health Contribution" tax (Sundhedsbidrag) which stood at 8% when it was introduced on 1 January 2007 with Kommunalreformen ("The Municipal Reform" of 2007), because it is anticipated the relatively isolated islets would otherwise be abandoned. This tax replaced the county tax, which the islanders were also exempt from paying, not being part of a county. From 1 January 2019 this tax will be abolished, while income taxes in the lowest bracket will be raised simultaneously instead with this tax being phased out. In 2012 this tax was lowered to 7%, 2013 6%, 2014 5%, 2015 4%, 2016 3%, 2017 2%, 2018 1%.</p><br>
<p>John Rae   was a Scottish surgeon who explored parts of northern Canada, found the final portion of the Northwest Passage  and reported the fate of the Franklin Expedition. In 1846–47 he explored the Gulf of Boothia northwest of Hudson Bay. In 1848–51 he explored the Arctic coast near Victoria Island. In 1854 he went from Boothia to the Arctic coast and learned the fate of Franklin. He was noted for physical stamina, skill at hunting and boat handling, use of native methods and the ability to travel long distances with little equipment while living off the land.</p><br>
<h2>Early life and career</h2><br>
<p>Rae was born at the Hall of Clestrain in the parish of Orphir in Orkney, Scotland. After studying medicine in Edinburgh, he graduated with a degree from the University of Edinburgh and was licensed by the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh – he went to work for the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company as a surgeon, accepting a post at Moose Factory, Ontario, where he remained for ten years.</p><br>
<p>Whilst working for the company, treating both European and indigenous employees of the company, Rae became known for his prodigious stamina and skilled use of snow shoes. He learned to live off the land like a native and working with the local craftsmen, designed his own snow shoes. This knowledge allowed him to travel great distances with little equipment and few followers, unlike many other explorers of the Victorian Age.</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<h3>Gulf of Boothia 1846–47</h3><br>
<p>In 1836–39 Thomas Simpson sailed along much of the north coast of Canada. Sir George Simpson proposed to link Thomas Simpson&#39;s furthest east by sending an overland expedition from Hudson Bay. Rae was chosen because of his well-known skill in overland travel. Rae first had to travel to the Red River Colony to learn the art of surveying. On 20 August 1844 Rae left Moose Factory, went up the Missinaibi River and took the usual voyageur route west. When he reached the Red River Colony on 9 October he found his instructor seriously ill. After the man died he headed for Sault Saint Marie to find another instructor. The two-month, 1,200 mile winter journey was by dog sled along the north shore of Lake Superior. From there Sir George told him to go to Toronto to study under J. H. LeFroy at the Magnetic Observatory. Returning from Toronto, he received final instructions at Sault Sainte Marie. He left on 5 August 1845 and took the usual voyageur route via Lake Winnipeg and reached York Factory on 8 October, where he wintered. On 12 June 1846 he headed north in two 22-foot boats and reached Repulse Bay in July. The local Inuit told him that there was salt water to the northwest, so he chose this as his base.</p><br>
<p>On his first journey, which began on 26 July, he dragged one of his boats forty miles northwest to the Committee Bay of the Gulf of Boothia. Here he learned from the Inuit that the Gulf of Boothia was a bay and that he would have to cross land to reach Simpsons furthest east. (In 1830 John Ross had also been told that Boothia was a bay). He sailed part way up the east coast of the Bay, but soon turned back because he needed to make preparations for winter. That winter he became one of the first Europeans to winter in the high Arctic without the aid of a depot ship. By December he had learned how to build igloos which he later found warmer than European tents. His second journey began on 5 April 1847. He crossed to Committee Bay, went up its west coast for four days and then headed west across the base of the Simpson Peninsula to Pelly Bay. He went north and from a hill thought he could see Lord Mayor Bay where John Ross had been frozen in from 1829 to 1833. He circled much of the coast of the Simpson Peninsula and returned to Repulse Bay. His third journey began on 13 May 1847. He crossed from Repulse Bay to Committee Bay and went up the east coast hoping to reach Fury and Hecla Strait which William Edward Parrys men had seen in 1822. The weather was bad and they began to run short of food. On 28 May he turned back at a place he called Cape Crozier which he thought was about 25 miles south of the strait. He left Repulse Bay on 12 August when the ice broke up and reached York Factory on 6 September 1847 and soon left for England and Scotland. Although he had not reached Simpson&#39;s furthest east he had reduced the gap to less than 100 miles.</p><br>
<h3>Arctic Coast 1848–51</h3><br>
<p>In 1848–51 Rae made three journeys along the Arctic coast. The first took him from the Mackenzie River to the Coppermine River, which had been done before. On the second he tried to cross to Victoria Island and was blocked by ice. On the third he explored the whole south coast of Victoria Island.</p><br>
<p>By 1848 it was clear that Sir John Franklin was lost in the Arctic. Three expeditions were sent to find him, one from the east, one through Bering Strait and the Richardson expedition overland to the Arctic coast. Most of the Arctic coast had been traced by Thomas Simpson (explorer). North of the coast were two coastlines called "Wollaston Land" and "Victoria Land". Franklin was thought to be somewhere in the unknown area north of that. The 61-year-old Richardson chose Rae as his second in command.</p><br>
<p>First journey (1848) Rae and Richardson left Liverpool in March, reached New York and took the usual voyageur route and on 15 July 1848 reached Fort Resolution on the Great Slave Lake. John Bell was sent downriver to establish winter quarters at Fort Confidence on the east arm to the Great Bear Lake. Richardson and Rae went down the Mackenzie River and turned east along the coast. They hoped to cross north to "Wollaston Land", as southern Victoria Island was then known, but ice conditions made this impossible. Through worsening ice, they rounded Cape Krusenstern at the west end of Coronation Gulf and turned south. By the first of September it was clear that they had run out of time, so they abandoned their boats and headed overland. They crossed the Rae River and Richardson River and on 15 September reached their winter quarters at Fort Confidence at the northeast end of the Great Bear Lake. For a fuller account see Rae–Richardson Arctic Expedition.</p><br>
<p>Second journey (1849) In December and January Rae made two trips northeast to find a better route to Coronation Gulf. On 7 May Richardson and Bell left with most of the men. Rae left on 9 June with seven men. Hauling a boat overland they reached the Kendall River on 21 June. The next day they reached the Coppermine River and waited a week for the ice to break up. They descended the Coppermine and waited again for the ice to clear on Coronation Gulf. It was 30 July before they reached Cape Krusenstern. From here they hoped to cross the Dolphin and Union Strait to "Wollaston Land". On 19 August they made the attempt, but after 8 miles they were caught in fog and moving ice and spent three hours rowing back to their starting point. Rae waited as long as he could and turned back, reaching Fort Confidence on the first of September. On the return journey their boat was lost at Bloody Falls and Albert One-Eye, the Inuk interpreter, was killed.</p><br>
<p>Third journey (1851) He reached Fort Simpson in late September. A week later William Pullen showed up, having sailed from the Bering Strait and up the Mackenzie River. In June 1850 he and Pullen went east up the Mackenzie with that years furs. On 25 June, just short of the Great Slave Lake, he was met by an express canoe. Pullen was promoted to captain and told to go north and try again. Rae received three letters from Sir George Simpson, Francis Beaufort and Lady Franklin all telling him to return to the Arctic. Simpson promised supplies and left the route to Raes discretion. Pullen left immediately with most of the equipment. Rae escorted the furs as far as Methye Portage and returned to Fort Simpson in August. En route he wrote Sir George a letter outlining his complex but ultimately successful plan. That winter he would go to Fort Confidence and build two boats and collect supplies. Next spring he would use dogsleds to cross to Wollaston Land and go as far as he could before the ice melt made it impossible to recross the Strait. Meanwhile his men would have hauled the boats overland to Coronation Gulf. When the ice melted he would follow the coast by boat as long as there was open water. He reached Fort Confidence in September and spent the winter.</p><br>
<p>On foot in spring: On 25 April 1851, he left the fort. On 2 May he crossed the frozen strait via Douglas Island to Cape Lady Franklin, the southernmost point on Victoria Island. Heading east he passed and named the Richardson Islands and passed what he thought was the westernmost point reached by Thomas Simpson on his return journey in 1839. He turned back somewhere near {{coord|68|36|0|N|110|00|0|W|type:island_region:CA_scale:300000|display=inline|name=raes easternmost}}. Heading west he passed Cape Lady Franklin and followed the coast north and west around Simpson Bay, which he named. The coast swung north but it was getting late. He made a final push, the coast swung to the northeast and on 24 May he stopped at about {{coord|70|11|0|N|116|15|0|W|type:island_region:CA_scale:300000|display=inline|name=raes west}}. From here he could look north across Prince Albert Sound. Unknown to Rae, just 10 days before a sledge party from Robert McClure&#39;s expedition had been on the north side of the sound. He turned south, crossed Dolphin and Union Strait safely and on 5 June turned inland. The journey to camp on the Kendall River was the least pleasant part of the journey since he had to travel over melting snow and through melt water.</p><br>
<p>By boat in summer: On 15 June 1851, two days after the boat arrived, he set off down the Kendall River and Coppermine River with 10 men. He waited several times for the ice to clear and in early July he started east along the south coast of Coronation Gulf. In late July he crossed the mouth of Bathurst Inlet and reached Cape Flinders at the western end of the Kent Peninsula. He reached Cape Alexander at its east end on 24 July and on 27 July crossed the strait to Victoria Island. He explored Cambridge Bay which he found to be a better harbour than Dease and Simpson had reported. He left the bay and went east along an unknown coast. The coast swung north and the weather got worse. By August he was in Albert Edward Bay. Blocked by ice, he went north on foot and reached his furthest on 13 August near {{coord|70|03|0|N|100|55|0|W|type:island_region:CA_scale:300000|display=inline}}. Returning, he left a cairn which was found by Richard Collinson&#39;s men two years later. He then made three unsuccessful attempts to cross Victoria Strait east to King William Island. (Victoria Strait is nearly always impassable.) On 21 August he found two pieces of wood that had clearly come from a European ship. (These were probably from Franklin&#39;s ship, but Rae chose not to guess.) On 29 August he reached Cape Lady Franklin and crossed to the mainland. He worked his way up the swollen Coppermine and reached Fort Confidence on 10 September. He had travelled 1,080 miles on land, 1,390 miles by boat, charted 630 miles of unknown coast, followed the whole south coast of Victoria Island, proved that Wollaston Land and Victoria Land were part of the same island and had not found Franklin.</p><br>
<p>By 1849 Rae was in charge of the Mackenzie River district at Fort Simpson. While exploring the Boothia Peninsula in 1854 Rae made contact with local Inuit, from whom he obtained much information about the fate of the lost naval expedition. His report to the British Admiralty carried shocking and unwelcome evidence that cannibalism had been a last resort for some of the survivors. When it was leaked to the Press, Franklin&#39;s widow Lady Jane Franklin was outraged and recruited many important supporters, among them Charles Dickens who wrote several pamphlets condemning Rae for daring to suggest British Naval sailors would have resorted to cannibalism.</p><br>
<h3>Closing the Gap and the Fate of Franklin 1854</h3><br>
<p>He went south to Fort Chipewyan, waited for a hard freeze, and walked on snowshoes to Fort Garry (17 November–10 January), took the Crow Wing Trail to St Paul, and then went to Chicago, Hamilton, Ontario, New York and London, which he reached in late March 1852. In England he proposed to return to Boothia and complete his attempt to link Hudson Bay to the Arctic coast by dragging a boat to the Back River. He went to New York, Montreal, Sault Sainte Marie by steamer, Fort William, Ontario by canoe and reached York Factory on 18 June 1853 where he picked up his two boats. He left on 24 June and reached Chesterfield Inlet on 17 July. Finding a previously unknown river, he followed it for 210 miles before it became too small to use. Judging that it was too late to drag the boat north to the Back River, he turned back and wintered at his old camp on Repulse Bay.</p><br>
<p>He left Repulse Bay on 31 March 1854. Near Pelly Bay he met some Inuit, one of whom had a gold cap-band. Asked where he got it, he replied that it came from a place 10–12 days away where 35 or so Kabloonas (white men) had starved to death. Rae bought the hat-band and said he would buy anything similar. On 27 April he reached frozen salt water south of what is now called Rae Strait. A few miles west, on the south side of the bay, he reached what he believed was the Castor and Pollux River ({{coord|68|28|45|N|93|53|35|W|type:river:CA_scale:300000|display=inline}}), which Simpson had reached from the west in 1839. He then turned north along the western portion of the Boothia Peninsula, the last uncharted coast of North America, hoping to reach Bellot Strait and so close the last gap in the line from Bering Strait to Hudson Bay. The coast continued north instead of swinging west to form the south shore of "King William Land".</p><br>
<p>On 6 May he reached his furthest north at about {{coord|68|57|27|N|94|35|24|W|type:island_region:CA_scale:300000|display=inline}}. which he named Point de la Guiche after an obscure French traveler he had met in New York. It appeared that King William Land was an island and the coast to the north was the same as had been seen by James Clark Ross in 1831. Author Ken McGoogan has claimed that Rae here effectively discovered the final link in the Northwest Passage as followed in the following century by Amundsen, although Arctic historian William Barr has refuted that claim citing the uncharted 240 km between Ross&#39; discoveries and Bellot Strait.</p><br>
<p>With only two men fit for heavy travel, Rae turned back. Reaching Repulse Bay on 26 May he found several Inuit families who had come to trade relics. They said that four winters ago some other Inuit had met at least 40 Kabloonas who were dragging a boat south. Their leader was a tall, stout man with a telescope. They communicated by gestures that their ships had been crushed by ice and that they were going south to hunt deer. When the Inuit returned the following spring they found about 30 corpses and signs of cannibalism. One of the artifacts Rae bought was a small silver plate. Engraved on the back was "Sir John Franklin, K.C.H". With this important information, Rae chose not to continue exploring. He left Repulse Bay on 4 August 1854 as soon as the ice cleared.</p><br>
<h2>Later career and death</h2><br>
<p>In 1860 Rae worked on the telegraph line to America, visiting Iceland and Greenland. In 1864 he made a further telegraph survey in the west of Canada. In 1884 at age 71 he was again working for the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company, this time as an explorer of the Red River for a proposed telegraph line from the United States to Russia.</p><br>
<p>John Rae died from an aneurysm in Kensington, London on 22 July 1893. A week later his body arrived in Orkney. He was buried in the kirkyard of St Magnus&#39; Cathedral, Kirkwall. A memorial to him, lying as in sleep upon the ground, is inside the cathedral. The memorial by North Ronaldsay sculptor, Ian Scott, which was unveiled at Stromness Pierhead in 2013, is a statue of Rae standing erect, with an inscription describing him as "the discoverer of the final link in the first navigable Northwest Passage."</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Rae Strait (between King William Island and the Boothia Peninsula), Rae Isthmus, Rae River, Mount Rae, Fort Rae and the village of Rae-Edzo (now Behchoko), Northwest Territories were all named for him.</p><br>
<p>The outcome of Lady Franklin&#39;s efforts to glorify the dead of the Franklin expedition meant Rae was shunned somewhat by the British establishment. Although he found the first clue to the fate of Franklin, Rae was never awarded a knighthood, nor was he remembered at the time of his death, dying quietly in London. In comparison fellow Scot and contemporary explorer David Livingstone was buried with full imperial honours in Westminster Abbey.</p><br>
<p>Historians have since studied Rae&#39;s expeditions and his roles in finding the Northwest Passage and learning the fate of Franklin&#39;s crews. Authors such as Ken McGoogan have noted Rae was willing to adopt and learn the ways of indigenous Arctic peoples, which made him stand out as the foremost specialist of his time in cold-climate survival and travel. Rae also respected Inuit customs, traditions and skills, which went against the beliefs of many 19th century Europeans that most native peoples were primitive and of little educational value.</p><br>
<p>In July 2004, Orkney and Shetland MP Alistair Carmichael introduced into the UK Parliament a motion proposing, inter alia, that the House "regrets that Dr Rae was never awarded the public recognition that was his due". In March 2009 he introduced a further motion urging Parliament to formally state it "regrets that memorials to Sir John Franklin outside the Admiralty headquarters and inside Westminster Abbey still inaccurately describe Franklin as the first to discover the North West passage, and calls on the Ministry of Defence and the Abbey authorities to take the necessary steps to clarify the true position." In June 2014, it was announced that a plaque dedicated to Rae would be installed at Westminster Abbey.</p><br>
<p>In June 2011, a blue plaque was installed by English Heritage on the house where John Rae spent the last years of his life, No. 4 Lower Addison Gardens, Kensington.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the process of establishing a group to promote the achievements of John Rae commenced. This group, calling itself &#39;In John Rae&#39;s Company&#39; was first virtually established as a Facebook group on 5 January 2013. A petition calling for the issuing of a commemorative postage stamp was launched by Orkney International Science Festival.</p><br>
<p>After a conference in Stromness, Orkney to celebrate John Rae&#39;s 200th Anniversary, in September 2013, a statue was erected to Rae at the pierhead. In December 2013, The John Rae Society was formed in Orkney to promote Rae&#39;s achievements.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>* Canadian filmmaker John Walker&#39;s documentary Passage highlighted Rae&#39;s role in the controversy over cannibalism, as well as his discovery of the Rae Strait.</p><br>
<p>* In November, 2009, Rae was the subject of the BBC2 programme Ray Mears&#39; Northern Wilderness (Episode 4).</p><br>
<p>Lagash  is an ancient city located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about 22 km east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash  was one of the oldest cities of the Ancient Near East. The ancient site of Nina  is around 10 km away and marks the southern limit of the state. Nearby Girsu , about 25 km northwest of Lagash, was the religious center of the Lagash state. Lagash&#39;s main temple was the E-Ninnu, dedicated to the god Ningirsu.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>From inscriptions found at Girsu such as the Gudea cylinders, it appears that Lagash was an important Sumerian city in the late 3rd millennium BC. It was at that time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nanshe (24th century BC) and his successors, who were engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kienĝir and Kish on the north. Some of the earlier works from before the Akkadian conquest are also extremely interesting, in particular Eanatums Stele of the Vultures and Entemenas great silver vase ornamented with Ningirsu&#39;s sacred animal Anzu: a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread, grasping a lion in each talon. With the Akkadian conquest Lagash lost its independence, its ruler or ensi becoming a vassal of Sargon of Akkad and his successors; but Lagash continued to be a city of much importance and above all, a centre of artistic development.</p><br>
<p>After the collapse of Sargon&#39;s state, Lagash again thrived under its independent kings (ensis), Ur-Baba and Gudea, and had extensive commercial communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and southern Arabia, while his armies were engaged in battles with Elam on the east. His was especially the era of artistic development. We even have a fairly good idea of what Gudea looked like, since he placed in temples throughout his city numerous statues or idols depicting himself with lifelike realism, (Statues of Gudea). At the time of Gudea, the capital of Lagash was actually in Girsu. The kingdom covered an area of approximately 1,600 km&sup2;. It contained 17 larger cities, eight district capitals, and numerous villages (about 40 known by name). According to one estimate, Lagash was the largest city in the world from c. 2075 to 2030 BC.</p><br>
<p>Soon after the time of Gudea, Lagash was absorbed into the Ur III state as one of its prime provinces. There is some information about the area during the Old Babylonian period. After that it seems to have lost its importance; at least we know nothing more about it until the construction of the Seleucid fortress mentioned, when it seems to have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene.</p><br>
<h2>Conflict with Umma</h2><br>
<p>In c. 2450 BC, Lagash and the neighbouring city of Umma fell out with each other after a border dispute. As described in Stele of the Vultures the current king of Lagash, Eannatum, inspired by the patron god of his city, Ningirsu, set out with his army to defeat the nearby city. Initial details of the battle are unclear, but the Stele is able to portray a few vague details about the event. According to the Steles engravings, when the two sides met each other in the field, Eannatum dismounted from his chariot and proceeded to lead his men on foot. After lowing their spears, the Lagash army advanced upon the army from Umma in a dense Phalanx. After a brief clash, Eannatum and his army had gained victory over the army of Umma. Despite having been struck in the eye by an arrow, the king of Lagash lived on to enjoy his armys victory. This battle is one of the earliest organised battles known to scholars and historians.</p><br>
<h2>Dynasties of Lagash</h2><br>
<p>These dynasties are not found on the Sumerian King List, although one extremely fragmentary supplement has been found in Sumerian, known as the rulers of Lagash. It recounts how after the flood mankind was having difficulty growing food for itself, being dependent solely on rainwater; it further relates that techniques of irrigation and cultivation of barley were then imparted by the gods. At the end of the list is the statement "Written in the school", suggesting this was a scribal school production. A few of the names from the Lagash rulers listed below may be made out, including Ur-Nanshe, "Ane-tum", En-entar-zid, Ur-Ningirsu, Ur-Bau, and Gudea.</p><br>
<h2>First dynasty of Lagash</h2><br>
<h2>Second dynasty of Lagash</h2><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Lagash is one of the largest archaeological mounds in the region, measuring roughly 3 by. Estimates of its area range from 400 to 600 ha. The site is divided by the bed of a canal/river, which runs diagonally through the mound. The site was first excavated, for six weeks, by Robert Koldewey in 1887. It was inspected during a survey of the area by Thorkild Jacobsen and Fuad Safar in 1953, finding the first evidence of its identification as Lagash. The major polity in the region of al-Hiba and Tello had formerly been identified as ŠIR.BUR.LA (Shirpurla). Tell Al-Hiba was again explored in five seasons of excavation between 1968 and 1976 by a team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Institute of Fine Arts of New York University. The team was led by Vaughn E. Crawford, and included Donald P. Hansen and Robert D. Biggs. The primary focus was the excavation of the temple Ibgal of Inanna and the temple Bagara of Ningirsu, as well as an associated administrative area.</p><br>
<p>The team returned 12 years later, in 1990, for a final season of excavation led by D. P. Hansen. The work primarily involved areas adjacent to an, as yet, unexcavated temple. The results of this season have apparently not yet been published.</p><br>
<p>The River Axe is a river in Dorset, Somerset and Devon, in the south-west of England.</p><br>
<p>It rises near Beaminster in Dorset, flows west then south by Axminster and joins the English Channel at Axmouth near Seaton in Lyme Bay. During its 22 mi course it is fed by various streams and by the tributary rivers Yarty and Coly.</p><br>
<p>It is a shallow, non-navigable river, although its mouth at Axmouth has some boating activity.</p><br>
<p>The name derives from a Common Brittonic word meaning "abounding in fish", which is also the root for the River Axe in the Bristol Channel as well as the Exe, Esk, Usk and other variants. The name is cognate with pysg (plural of pysgod), the Welsh word for fish.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, a section of the river extending for 13 km—from the confluence with the Blackwater River (ST325023) to Colyford Bridge —was designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). It was described as supporting "an exceptionally diverse aquatic and marginal flora".</p><br>
<p>The Capitoline Hill , between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome.</p><br>
<p>The hill was earlier known as Mons Saturnius, dedicated to the god Saturn. The word Capitolium first meant the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus later built here, and afterwards it was used for the whole hill (and even other temples of Jupiter on other hills), thus Mons Capitolinus (the adjective noun of Capitolium). Ancient sources refer the name to caput ("head", "summit") and the tale was that, when laying the foundations for the temple, the head of a man was found, some sources even saying it was the head of some Tolus or Olus. The Capitolium was regarded by the Romans as indestructible, and was adopted as a symbol of eternity.</p><br>
<p>By the 16th century, Capitolinus had become Capitolino in Italian, and Capitolium Campidoglio. The Capitoline Hill contains few ancient ground-level ruins, as they are almost entirely covered up by Medieval and Renaissance palaces (now housing the Capitoline Museums) that surround a piazza, a significant urban plan designed by Michelangelo.</p><br>
<p>Influenced by Roman architecture and Roman republican times, the word Capitolium still lives in the English word capitol. The Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. is widely assumed to be named after the Capitoline Hill, but the relation is not clear.</p><br>
<h2>Ancient history</h2><br>
<p>At this hill, the Sabines, creeping to the Citadel, were let in by the Roman maiden Tarpeia. For this treachery, Tarpeia was the first to be punished by being flung from a steep cliff overlooking the Roman Forum. This cliff was later named the Tarpeian Rock after the Vestal Virgin, and became a frequent execution site. The Sabines, who immigrated to Rome following the Rape of the Sabine Women, settled on the Capitoline. The Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), an 8th-century BC sacred precinct, occupied much of the eastern lower slopes of the Capitoline, at the head of what would later become the Roman Forum. The summit was the site of a temple for the Capitoline Triad, started by Rome&#39;s fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616-579 BC), and completed by the seventh and last king, Tarquinius Superbus (535–496 BC). It was considered one of the largest and the most beautiful temples in the city (although little now remains). The city legend starts with the recovery of a human skull (the word for head in Latin is caput) when foundation trenches were being dug for the Temple of Jupiter at Tarquin&#39;s order. Recent excavations on the Capitoline uncovered an early cemetery under the Temple of Jupiter.</p><br>
<p>There are several important temples built on Capitoline hill: the temple of Juno Moneta, the temple of Virtus, and the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus is the most important of the temples. It was built in 509 BC and was nearly as large as the Parthenon. The hill and the temple of Jupiter became the symbols of Rome, the capital of the world.</p><br>
<p>The Temple of Saturn was built at the foot of Capitoline Hill in the western end of the Forum Romanum.</p><br>
<p>When the Senones Gauls (settled in central-east Italy) raided Rome in 390 BC, after the battle of River Allia, the Capitoline Hill was the one section of the city to evade capture by the barbarians, due to its being fortified by the Roman defenders. According to legend Marcus Manlius Capitolinus was alerted to the Gallic attack by the sacred geese of Juno. When Julius Caesar suffered an accident during his triumph, clearly indicating the wrath of Jupiter for his actions in the Civil Wars, he approached the hill and Jupiter&#39;s temple on his knees as a way of averting the unlucky omen (nevertheless he was murdered six months later, and Brutus and his other assassins locked themselves inside the temple afterward). Vespasian&#39;s brother and nephew were also besieged in the temple during the Year of Four Emperors (69).</p><br>
<p>The Tabularium, located underground beneath the piazza and hilltop, occupies a building of the same name built in the 1st century BC to hold Roman records of state. The Tabularium looks out from the rear onto the Roman Forum. The main attraction of the Tabularium, besides the structure itself, is the Temple of Veiovis.</p><br>
<p>During the lengthy period of ancient Rome, the Capitoline Hill was the geographical and ceremonial center. However, by the Renaissance, the former center was an untidy conglomeration of dilapidated buildings and the site of executions of criminals.</p><br>
<h2>Medieval history</h2><br>
<p>The church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli is adjacent to the square, located near where the ancient arx, or citadel, atop the hill it once stood. At its base are the remains of a Roman insula, with more than four storeys visible from the street.</p><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, the hill’s sacred function was obscured by its other role as the center of the civic government of Rome, revived as a commune in the 11th century. The city&#39;s government was now to be firmly under papal control, but the Capitoline was the scene of movements of urban resistance, such as the dramatic scenes of Cola di Rienzo&#39;s revived republic. In 1144, a revolt by the citizens against the authority of the Pope and nobles led to a senator taking up his official residence on the Capitoline Hill. The senator’s new palace turned its back on the ancient forum, beginning the change in orientation on the hill that Michelangelo would later accentuate. A small piazza was laid out in front of the senator’s palace, intended for communal purposes. In the middle of the 14th century, the guilds’ court of justice was constructed on the southern end of the piazza. This would later house the Conservatori in the 15th century. As a result, the piazza was already surrounded by buildings by the 16th century.</p><br>
<h2>Michelangelo</h2><br>
<p>The existing design of the Piazza del Campidoglio and the surrounding palazzi was created by Renaissance artist and architect Michelangelo Buonarroti in 1536–1546. At the height of his fame, he was commissioned by the Farnese Pope Paul III, who wanted a symbol of the new Rome to impress Charles V, who was expected in 1538. This offered him the opportunity to build a monumental civic plaza for a major city as well as to reestablish the grandeur of Rome.</p><br>
<p>Michelangelo&#39;s first designs for the piazza and remodeling of the surrounding palazzi date from 1536. His plan was formidably extensive. He accentuated the reversal of the classical orientation of the Capitoline, in a symbolic gesture turning Rome’s civic center to face away from the Roman Forum and instead in the direction of Papal Rome and the Christian church in the form of St. Peter’s Basilica. This full half circle turn can also be seen as Michelangelo’s desire to address the new, developing section of the city rather than the ancient ruins of the past. An equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius was to stand in the middle of the piazza set in a paved oval field. Michelangelo was required to provide a setting for the statue and to bring order to an irregular hilltop already encumbered by two crumbling medieval buildings set at an acute angle to one another. The Palazzo del Senatore was to be restored with a double outer stairway, and the campanile moved to the center axis of the palace. The Palazzo dei Conservatori was also to be restored, and a new building, the so-called Palazzo Nuovo, built at the same angle on the north side of the piazza to offset the Conservatori, creating a trapezoidal piazza. A wall and balustrade were to be built at the front of the square, giving it a firm delineation on the side facing the city. Finally, a flight of steps was to lead up to the enclosed piazza from below, further accentuating the central axis.</p><br>
<p>The sequence, Cordonata piazza and the central palazzo are the first urban introduction of the "cult of the axis" that was to occupy Italian garden plans and reach fruition in France.</p><br>
<p>Executing the design was slow: Little was actually completed in Michelangelo&#39;s lifetime (the Cordonata Capitolina was not in place when Emperor Charles arrived, and the imperial party had to scramble up the slope from the Forum to view the works in progress), but work continued faithfully to his designs and the Campidoglio was completed in the 17th century, except for the paving design, which was to be finished three centuries later.</p><br>
<h3>Piazza</h3><br>
<p>The bird&#39;s-eye view of the engraving by Étienne Dupérac shows Michelangelo&#39;s solution to the problems of the space in the Piazza del Campidoglio. Even with their new facades centering them on the new palazzo at the rear, the space was a trapezoid, and the facades did not face each other squarely. Worse still, the whole site sloped (to the left in the engraving). Michelangelo&#39;s solution was radical. The three remodelled palazzi enclose a harmonious trapezoidal space, approached by the ramped staircase called the "Cordonata". The stepped ramp of the cordonata was intended, like a slow-moving escalator, to lift its visitors toward the sky and deposit them on the threshold of municipal authority. Since no "perfect" forms would work within the dimension of the plaza, his apparent oval in the paving is actually egg-shaped, narrower at one end than at the other. The oval shape combined with the diamond pattern within it was a play on the previous Renaissance geometries of the circle and square. The travertine design set into the paving is perfectly level: Around its perimeter, low steps arise and die away into the paving as the slope requires. Its centre springs slightly, so that one senses that he/she is standing on the exposed segment of a gigantic egg all but buried at the centre of the city at the centre of the world, as Michelangelo&#39;s historian Charles de Tolnay pointed out. An interlaced twelve-pointed star makes a subtle reference to the constellations, revolving around this space called Caput mundi, Latin for "head of the world." This paving design was never executed by the popes, who may have detected a subtext of less-than-Christian import, but Benito Mussolini ordered the paving completed to Michelangelo&#39;s design in 1940. Michelangelo looked at the center to find a solution to the Capitoline disorder. The statue provided a center and a focus. The buildings defined the space, and it is this space as much as the buildings, that is the impressive achievement of the Capitoline complex. It is a giant outdoor room, a plaza enclosed and protected but open to the sky and accessible through five symmetrical openings. Axiality and symmetry govern all parts of the Campidoglio. The aspect of the piazza that makes this most immediately apparent is the central statue, with the paving pattern directing the visitors’ eyes to its base. Michelangelo also gave the medieval Palazzo del Senatore a central campanile, a renovated façade, and a grand divided external staircase. He designed a new façade for the colonnaded Palazzo dei Conservatori and projected an identical structure, the Palazzo Nuovo, for the opposite side of the piazza. On the narrow side of the trapezoidal plan, he extended the central axis with a magnificent stair to link the hilltop with the city below.</p><br>
<h4>Marcus Aurelius</h4><br>
<p>In the middle, and not to Michelangelo’s liking, stood the original equestrian statue of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Michelangelo provided an unassuming pedestal for it. The sculpture was held in regard because it was thought to depict Emperor Constantine, the first Christian Emperor. The bronze now in position is a modern copy; the original is in the Palazzo dei Conservatori nearby.</p><br>
<h3>Palazzi</h3><br>
<p>He provided new fronts to the two official buildings of Rome&#39;s civic government, the Palazzo dei Conservatori, the Senatorio, and finally the Nuovo. Michelangelo designed a new façade for the dilapidated Palazzo dei Conservatori and he designed the Palazzo Nuovo to be a mirror complement, thereby providing balance and coherence to the ragged ensemble of existing structures. The construction of these two buildings were carried out after his death under the supervision of Tommaso Cavalieri. The sole arched motif in the entire Campidoglio design is the segmental pediments over their windows, which give a slight spring to the completely angular vertical-horizontal balance of the design. The three palazzi are now home to the Capitoline Museums.</p><br>
<h4>Palazzo Caffarelli Clementino</h4><br>
<p>Adjacent and now serving as an annex to the Palazzo dei Conservatori is Palazzo Caffarelli Clementino; here, short-term exhibitions are held. The palazzo was built between 1576 and 1583 by Gregory Canonico for Gian Pietro Caffarelli II. Until the cessation of World War I, the palazzo served as the German Embassy to Rome. Following the war, it was claimed by the Comune di Roma, which demolished a large section of the palazzo&#39;s east wing to create the Caffarelli Terrace.</p><br>
<h4>Palazzo dei Conservatori</h4><br>
<p>The Palazzo dei Conservatori ("Palace of the Conservators") was built in the Middle Ages for the local magistrate on top of a sixth-century BC temple dedicated to Jupiter "Maximus Capitolinus". Michelangelo&#39;s renovation of it incorporated the first use of a giant order that spanned two storeys, here with a range of Corinthian pilasters and subsidiary Ionic columns flanking the ground-floor loggia openings and the second-floor windows. Michelangelo’s new portico is a reinvention of older ideas. The portico contains entablatures and a flat, coffer-like ceiling. The entablatures rest on columns set at the front of each bay, while matching half-columns stand against the back wall. Each pilaster forms a compound unit with the pier and column on either side of it. Colossal pilasters set on large bases join the portico and the upper story. All of the windows are capped with segmental pediments. A balustrade fringing the roof emphasizes the emphatic horizontality of the whole against which the vertical lines of the orders rise in majestic contrast. The verticality of the colossal order creates the feeling of a self-contained space while the horizontality of the entablatures and balustrades emphasize the longitudinal axis of the piazza. The palazzo’s facade was updated by Michelangelo in the 1530s and again later numerous times.</p><br>
<p>In Rome the portico of the Palazzo dei Conservatori sheltered offices of various guilds. Here disputes arising in the transaction of business were adjudicated, unless they were of sufficient importance to go before a communal tribunal, such as that of the conservatori. It was a natural place for such activity. Until the 1470s the main market of the city was held on and around the campidoglio, while cattle continued to be taxed and sold in the ancient forum located just to the south.</p><br>
<h4>Palazzo Senatorio</h4><br>
<p>Built during the 13th and 14th centuries, the Palazzo Senatorio ("Senatorial Palace") stands atop the Tabularium, which had once housed the archives of ancient Rome. Peperino blocks from the Tabularium were re-used in the left side of the palace and a corner of the bell tower. It now houses the Roman city hall. Its double ramp of stairs was designed by Michelangelo. This double stairway to the palazzo replaced the old flight of steps and two-storied loggia, which had stood on the right side of the palace. The staircase cannot be seen solely in terms of the building to which it belongs but must be set in the context of the piazza as a whole. The steps, beginning at the center of each wing, move gently upward until they reach the inner corner, level off and recede to the main surface of the façade. They then continue an unbroken stateliness toward each other, converging on the central doorway of the second story. This interruption of the diagonal line and the brief inward change of direction both absorbs the central axis and links the two sides. The fountain in front of the staircase features the river gods of the Tiber and the Nile as well as Dea Roma (Minerva). The upper part of the facade was designed by Michelangelo with colossal corinthian pilasters harmonizing with the two other buildings. Its bell-tower was designed by Martino Longhi the Elder and built between 1578 and 1582. Its current facade was built by Giacomo della Porta and Girolamo Rainaldi.</p><br>
<h4>Palazzo Nuovo</h4><br>
<p>To close off the piazza&#39;s symmetry and cover up the tower of the Aracoeli, the Palazzo Nuovo, or "New Palace", was constructed in 1603, finished in 1654, and opened to the public in 1734. Its facade duplicates to that of Palazzo dei Conservatori. In other words, it is an identical copy made using Michelangelo&#39;s blueprint when he redesigned the Palazzo dei Conservatori a century earlier.</p><br>
<h3>Balustrade</h3><br>
<p>A balustrade, punctuated by sculptures atop the giant pilasters, capped the composition, one of the most influential of Michelangelo&#39;s designs. The two massive ancient statues of Castor and Pollux that decorate the balustrades are not the same as those posed by Michelangelo, which now are in front of the Palazzo del Quirinale.</p><br>
<h3>Cordonata</h3><br>
<p>Next to the older and much steeper stairs leading to the Aracoeli, Michelangelo devised a monumental wide-ramped stair (the cordonata), gradually ascending the hill to reach the high piazza, so that the Campidoglio resolutely turned its back on the Roman Forum that it had once commanded. It was built to be wide enough for horse riders to ascend the hill without dismounting. The railings are topped by the statues of two Egyptian lions in black basalt at their base and the marble renditions of Castor and Pollux at their top.</p><br>
<p>The Meteora  is a rock formation in central Greece hosting one of the largest and most precipitously built complexes of Eastern Orthodox monasteries, second in importance only to Mount Athos. The six monasteries are built on immense natural pillars and hill-like rounded boulders that dominate the local area. It is located near the town of Kalambaka at the northwestern edge of the Plain of Thessaly near the Pineios river and Pindus Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Meteora is included on the UNESCO World Heritage List under criteria I, II, IV, V and VII.</p><br>
<p>The name means "lofty", "elevated", and is etymologically related to meteor.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Beside the Pindos Mountains, in the western region of Thessaly, these unique and enormous columns of rock rise precipitously from the ground. But their unusual form is not easy to explain geologically.</p><br>
<p>They are not volcanic plugs of hard igneous rock typical elsewhere, but the rocks are composed of a mixture of sandstone and conglomerate.</p><br>
<p>The conglomerate was formed of deposits of stone, sand and mud from streams flowing into a delta at the edge of a lake, over millions of years. About 60 million years ago during the Paleogene period a series of earth movements pushed the seabed upwards, creating a high plateau and causing many vertical fault lines in the thick layer of sandstone. The huge rock pillars were then formed by weathering by water, wind and extremes of temperature on the vertical faults. It is unusual that this conglomerate formation and type of weathering are confined to a relatively localised area within the surrounding mountain formation.</p><br>
<p>This type of rock formation and weathering process has happened in many other places locally and throughout the world, but what makes Meteora&#39;s appearance special is firstly the uniformity of the sedimentary rock constituents deposited over millions of years leaving few signs of vertical layering, and secondly the localised abrupt vertical weathering.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient History</h3><br>
<p>Caves in the vicinity of Meteora were inhabited continuously between 50,000 and 5,000 years ago. The oldest known example of a man-made structure, a stone wall that blocked two-thirds of the entrance to the Theopetra cave, was constructed 23,000 years ago, probably as a barrier against cold winds – the Earth was experiencing an ice age at the time – and many Paleolithic and Neolithic artifacts have been found within the caves.</p><br>
<p>As early as the 11th century, monks occupied the caverns of Meteora. However, monasteries were not built until the 14th century, when the monks sought somewhere to hide in the face of an increasing number of Turkish attacks on Greece. At this time, access to the top was via removable ladders or windlass. Nowadays, getting up is a lot simpler due to steps being carved into the rock during the 1920s. Of the 24 monasteries, only 6 (five male, one female) are still functioning, with each housing less than 10 individuals.</p><br>
<p>The cave of Theopetra is located 4 km from Kalambaka. Its uniqueness from an archeological perspective is that a single site contains records of two greatly significant cultural transitions: the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans and later, the transition from hunting-gathering to farming after the end of the last Ice Age. The cave consists of an immense 500 m&sup2; rectangular chamber at the foot of a limestone hill, which rises to the northeast above the village of Theopetra, with an entrance 17 m wide by 3 m high. It lies at the foot of the Chasia mountain range, which forms the natural boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia prefectures, while the Lithaios River, a tributary of the Pineios River, flows in front of the cave. The small Lithaios River flowing literally on the doorsteps of the cave meant that cave dwellers had always easy access to fresh, clean water without the need to cover daily long distances to find it. Excavations and research and have discovered petrified diatoms, which have contributed to understanding the Palaeo-climate and climate changes. Radiocarbon dating evidences human presence dating back 50,000 years. The cave is open to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Monasteries</h3><br>
<p>In the 9th century AD, an ascetic group of hermit monks moved up to the ancient pinnacles; they were the first people to inhabit Meteora since the Neolithic Era. They lived in hollows and fissures in the rock towers, some as high as 1800 ft (550m) above the plain. This great height, combined with the sheerness of the cliff walls, kept away all but the most determined visitors. Initially, the hermits led a life of solitude, meeting only on Sundays and special days to worship and pray in a chapel built at the foot of a rock known as Dhoupiani.</p><br>
<p>The exact date of the establishment of the monasteries is unknown. By the late 11th and early 12th centuries, a rudimentary monastic state had formed called the Skete of Stagoi and was centered around the still-standing church of Theotokos (mother of God). By the end of the 12th century, an ascetic community had flocked to Meteora.</p><br>
<p>In 1344, Athanasios Koinovitis from Mount Athos brought a group of followers to Meteora. From 1356 to 1372, he founded the great Meteoron monastery on the Broad Rock, which was perfect for the monks; they were safe from political upheaval and had complete control of the entry to the monastery. The only means of reaching it was by climbing a long ladder, which was drawn up whenever the monks felt threatened.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the 14th century, the Byzantine Empire&#39;s reign over northern Greece was being increasingly threatened by Turkish raiders who wanted control over the fertile plain of Thessaly. The hermit monks, seeking a retreat from the expanding Turkish occupation, found the inaccessible rock pillars of Meteora to be an ideal refuge. More than 20 monasteries were built, beginning in the 14th century. Six remain today.</p><br>
<p>In 1517, Nectarios and Theophanes built the monastery of Varlaam, which was reputed to house the finger of St John and the shoulder blade of St Andrew.</p><br>
<p>Access to the monasteries was originally (and deliberately) difficult, requiring either long ladders lashed together or large nets used to haul up both goods and people. This required quite a leap of faith &ndash; the ropes were replaced, so the story goes, only "when the Lord let them break". In the words of UNESCO, "The net in which intrepid pilgrims were hoisted up vertically alongside the 373 m cliff where the Varlaam monastery dominates the valley symbolizes the fragility of a traditional way of life that is threatened with extinction."</p><br>
<p>Until the 17th century, the primary means of conveying goods and people from these eyries was by means of baskets and ropes.</p><br>
<p>In 1921, Queen Marie of Romania visited Meteora, becoming the first woman ever allowed to enter the Great Meteoron monastery.</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s there was an improvement in the arrangements. Steps were cut into the rock, making the complex accessible via a bridge from the nearby plateau. During World War II the site was bombed. Many art treasures were stolen.</p><br>
<h2>List of monasteries</h2><br>
<p>At their peak in the sixteenth century there were 24 monasteries at Meteora in Greece. They were created to serve monks and nuns following the teachings of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Much of the architecture of these buildings is Athonite in origin. Today there are six still functioning, while the remainder are largely in ruin. Perched onto high cliffs, they are now accessible by staircases and pathways cut into the rock formations. Of the six functioning monasteries, the Holy Monastery of St. Stephen and the Holy Monastery of Roussanou are inhabited by nuns while the remainder are inhabited by monks. The total monastic population of the Meteora monasteries in 2015 was 56, comprising 15 monks in four monasteries and 41 nuns in two monasteries. The monasteries are now tourist attractions.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>Meteora, a 2012 Greek film devoted entirely to a story set in the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, Meteora.</p><br>
<p>The monastery of Holy Trinity was a filming location in the 1981 James Bond movie For Your Eyes Only</p><br>
<p>Scenes from Tintin and the Golden Fleece were also shot at the Meteora monasteries.</p><br>
<p>Michina, the main setting of the movie Pokémon: Arceus and the Jewel of Life is based on Meteora.</p><br>
<p>Meteora is the main location in the fiction book The Spook&#39;s Sacrifice, by Lancashire author Joseph Delaney</p><br>
<p>The Holy Monastery of St. Nicholas Anapausas was an inspiration for the monastery of, in the first level of Greece in both games Tomb Raider and Tomb Raider: Anniversary.</p><br>
<p>One of the surviving characters in Max Brooks&#39;s zombie apocalypse novel, "World War Z" finds refuge and peace of mind in the monasteries during and after the zombie war.</p><br>
<p>The 2012 film Meteora directed by Spiros Stathoulopoulos is set in the monasteries and scenery of Meteora</p><br>
<p>Primary location and name of Volume 3 in the comic book series "Le Décalogue" by French author Frank Giroud.</p><br>
<p>The Eyrie of Vale of the House of Arryn from Game of Thrones is based on Meteora</p><br>
<p>The Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 DLC Map "Sanctuary" is set in the monasteries of the Meteora.</p><br>
<p>The 2003 album by Linkin Park takes its name from the site.</p><br>
<p>The monasteries were a filming location for the 1976 action movie Sky Riders starring Susannah York, James Coburn and Robert Culp.</p><br>
<p>In The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles episode "Travels with Father", Indiana and his father visit Meteora.</p><br>
<p>The Twelve Apostles is a collection of limestone stacks off the shore of the Port Campbell National Park, by the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, Australia. Their proximity to one another has made the site a popular tourist attraction. There are eight Apostles left, the ninth having collapsed dramatically in July 2005. The name remains significant and spectacular, especially in the Australian tourism industry.</p><br>
<h2>Formation and history</h2><br>
<p>The apostles were formed by erosion: The harsh and extreme weather conditions from the Southern Ocean gradually eroded the soft limestone to form caves in the cliffs, which then became arches, which in turn collapsed; leaving rock stacks up to 50 metres high. Because of this erosion, there are fewer than ten remaining. The site was known as the Sow and Pigs (Muttonbird Island, near Loch Ard Gorge, was the Sow, and the smaller rock stacks were the "Piglets"), the Pinnacles or the Twelve Apostles. The formation eventually became known as the Twelve Apostles, despite only ever having nine stacks.</p><br>
<p>In 2002, the Port Campbell Professional Fishermens Association unsuccessfully attempted to block the creation of a proposed marine national park at the Twelve Apostles location, but were satisfied with the later Victorian Government decision not to allow seismic exploration at the same site by Benaris Energy; believing it would harm marine life.</p><br>
<p>The stacks are susceptible to further erosion from the waves. On 3 July 2005, a 50 m stack collapsed, leaving eight standing. On 25 September 2009, it was thought that another of the stacks had fallen, but this was actually one of the smaller stacks of the Three Sisters formation. The rate of erosion at the base of the limestone pillars is approximately 2 cm per year. Due to wave action eroding the cliff face existing headlands are expected to become new limestone stacks in the future.</p><br>
